Paul Terasaki
根據移植排斥體液免疫理論,抗體會引起同種移植排斥。相關報道顯示:(1) 抗體引起腎移植的超急排斥;(2) 導致與早期腎移植失敗相關的 C4d 在腎小球沉積;(3) 抗體是早期急性腎移植排斥的良好指標;(4) 在826例發生腎移植排斥的患者中有96﹪ 的人群出現抗體;(5)33個不同的研究表明,抗體與腎移植、心臟移植、肺移植及肝移植的慢性排斥相關;(6)3個報道證實肺移植患者血液循環中的人類白細胞抗原(human leukocyte antigen,HLA)抗體出現在細支氣管炎性閉塞之前,以及HLA抗體出現在腎移植排斥前。就現階段來說,如果移植排斥體液免疫理論是成立的,那么帶有抗體的移植患者可通過免疫抑制的治療,直到抗體消失,以此防止慢性排斥的發生。同理,如果患者體內沒有HLA抗體,免疫抑制的用量可以減少。
20世紀50 年代,有關器官移植的一個重要的問題是:移植排斥到底是因為抗體(體液免疫)還是因為細胞免疫所引起。
現在關于此問題的爭論已很少聽到了,因為在過去的40 年中,細胞免疫理論已被認為是正確的理論而被廣泛接受。此結論是由Peter Medawar提出,可能因為他的學術威望,很少有人提出與他的理論不同的學說。另外一個可能的原因是,當前人們已經廣泛承認體液免疫和細胞免疫都參與了移植排斥的過程。但事實到底怎樣呢?
抗體是由細胞產生的。因此也可以說所有排斥都是細胞造成的。兩種理論的關鍵區別在于:(1) 移植器官的損害是由抗體的活動所造成;(2) 細胞毒直接作用,即由T細胞、自然殺傷細胞( natural killer ,NK )或遲發型超敏反應( delayed type hypersensitivity, DTH )等細胞毒所造成的。
有關HLA抗體直接導致移植器官排斥的報道越來越多。在此,我將提出我對這些報道的綜述意見。本文的目地并不是要達到觀點的“平衡”( balanced review ),而是希望能引起讀者對移植排斥體液免疫理論的重視,畢竟讀者已經對移植排斥是由細胞免疫所引起的相關文獻有過充分的接觸,例如在腎移植過程中,DTH免疫反應和腎移植中由T細胞引起的腎小管損傷。當今不同的免疫抑制治療已經成功地抑制了細胞免疫,但體液免疫反應亟待給予重視并找出改善的方法。
Gorer等[1]首先檢測出鼠體內的針對H-2組織相容性位點抗原的不同抗體。基于這些研究,國際研究機構進行了大規模的合作,最終發現和證實了人體內含有針對HLA抗原的抗體。這樣,對體液免疫理論的接受自然導致對引起移植反應的抗原的研究。當然,作為此項研究的一些追隨者,他們是以純科研為目的,而我的研究工作的前期是基于以下的論點:抗體是移植抗原預見性的指標。通過它,我們就可以直達問題的根源所在。
當接受腎移植的患者體內存在針對移植物的特異性抗體時,移植的腎臟會很快被排斥,即整個腎臟在幾分鐘之內被抗體毀滅。由此顯示出HLA抗體驚人的破壞力[2]。針對B細胞的HLA抗體有時會導致超急排斥[3]。最近的研究顯示,抗體介導的超急排斥在肺移植和心臟移植患者中更為明顯[4-6]。
如果排斥反應發生在手術切口縫合前數分鐘內,超急排斥可很容易被觀察到。值得注意的是隱匿性的超急排斥可出現在手術切口縫合后。此時,移植的腎臟是無功能的。1987年,在7788例首次接受尸腎移植的患者中,移植器官原發性無功能發生率( primary nonfunction rate )為8﹪,而兩次腎移植的患者(1471例)為14﹪,3次腎移植的患者( 224例)為20﹪[7]。如此大的發生率差異的原因是由于首次移植器官排斥后形成的高敏感狀態在兩次移植時誘發了隱匿性超急排斥。現在,由于交叉配型方法的改進,這種比率差別已經消失,首次移植與再次移植患者的器官存活率也基本相同[8]。
靜脈輸入高滴度的 HLA 抗體可使患者在數小時內死亡。1970 年有作者首次報道靜脈輸入高度致敏的孕婦血清會引起輸血相關性急性肺損傷,相關的綜述于 1985 年和 2001 年被屢次發表[9-11]。
患者在排斥同種異體移植物的過程中被致敏并產生抗體。目前唯一有效的檢測免疫狀態的方法是體液免疫檢測(而不是細胞免疫檢測),即檢查患者HLA抗體的存在。此類抗體可在孕婦體內和曾經輸血或接受器官移植后排斥的患者體內發現,也可在接受尸體靜、動脈同種異體移植的患者體內發現。以往接受器官移植的患者[12]。最早證實體液免疫檢測患者致敏水平的意義是通過對比兩組患者的存活率曲線得到的。根據有無細胞毒抗體,將患者分為兩組。移植前已經被致敏的患者,其存活率明顯低于移植前未被致敏的患者[13](圖1)。此外,此種現象在先前已有移植排斥的患者中更明顯。在過去的30年期間,許多文獻重新確認了HLA抗體(也作為檢測致敏的方法),對于腎臟[14-26]、心臟[27-30]、肝臟[31-34]和肺[5]移植都是很重要的。
許多年來,患者HLA抗體的檢測是通過熒光免疫方法從活檢組織中檢測IgG和IgM抗體,但該方法敏感性很低。1993年,Feucht等[35]發現腎小管周圍有補體的終產物C4d的沉積,這一發現為HLA抗體的檢測奠定了基礎。Feucht報道了在93例移植物損傷的患者中有51例出現C4d沉積。有C4d沉積的患者1年存活率為57﹪,而沒有C4d沉積的患者存活率為90﹪。8年后,這個研究小組又提供了抗體早期產生造成移植失敗的可靠證據[36]。該研究對117例存在C4d的移植患者和101例沒有C4d的移植患者進行了比較,前者移植存活率大大降低(圖2)。另一組數據表明,18例有HLA抗體的患者,其中有14例同時存在C4d。而30例沒有HLA抗體的患者中有11例存在C4d(P= 0.008)。表明C4d的檢測比起血液循環中的抗體檢測是一個更敏感的抗體檢測指標。
最近由慕尼黑[37-38]、波士頓[39-43]、維也那[44-47]、巴塞耳[48]和溫哥華[49]等研究機構的一系列報道再次證實了通過C4d染色檢測出的HLA抗體與早期和晚期移植失敗均有緊密的相關性。

圖1 移植前已經被致敏患者的存活率

圖2 存在 C4d 與無 C4d 的移植患者存活率對比
慢性排斥被公認為移植的主要問題。然而,慢性排斥的定義似乎很模糊。為此Halloran等[50-51]提出了一個新的定義。因本綜述涉及到許多早期的研究結論,無法應用新的定義。在這里,我們依然使用慢性移植排斥這個詞的舊定義,該定義特別強調由于免疫排斥造成的移植失敗。
移植后出現HLA抗體,并被認為與移植失敗相關是在1968年[52]和1970年[53]報道的。1978年[54],DR抗體在移植排斥后被發現,隨后針對移植后患者的一系列的研究工作便開始了[55]。
在2000年,我們綜述了有關HLA抗體與急性、慢性排斥相關的23篇文章[56]。其中有12篇是關于腎移植后HLA抗體的研究[19,57-58]。所有的研究都表明抗體與急性排斥、慢性排斥和移植存活率之間有著很重要的相關性。同樣,在5篇有關心臟移植的報告中,研究者們都證實有抗體的患者比沒有抗體的患者存活率要低[59,69-72]。3篇有關肺移植的研究[73-75],1篇有關肝移植的研究[76]和2篇有關角膜移植[77-78]的研究均表明有抗體的患者比沒有抗體的患者存活率要低[59-78]。在此綜述發表后,另外10篇相同類型的有關HLA抗體與腎臟、胰腎聯合、心臟和肺臟移植的文章也相繼發表了[17,30,79-86]。
如果 HLA 抗體引起移植失敗,那么它們應該在移植失敗的所有患者血清中被找到。我們早期的研究表明,54﹪的腎移植失敗患者體內有HLA抗體[52]。當Ⅱ類( Class Ⅱ)抗體可以被檢測后[54],腎移植失敗患者體內存在HLA抗體的比率上升到72﹪[55]。隨著檢測HLA抗體方法的靈敏度進一步提高,82﹪出現排斥情況的患者體內發現有抗體[87]。在靈敏度更高的流式細胞儀檢測方法應用到臨床后,Harmer等[88]發現100例腎移植排斥患者95﹪存在抗體。我們最近總結了826例來自5個不同移植中心的出現移植排斥患者的檢測結果[89]。通過AHG (羊抗人抗體)增強細胞毒方法檢測HLA抗體,發現約90﹪的患者存在HLA抗體。以往檢測沒有顯示有HLA抗體的患者在應用ELISA (酶聯免疫法)或流式細胞儀方法檢測后,存在HLA抗體的患者比率上升到96﹪。由此可見,幾乎所有的移植排斥患者都帶有HLA抗體。我尚未看到有關細胞免疫的類似研究,例如100例移植排斥的患者是否都存在細胞免疫反應。盡管這并不能肯定抗體與移植排斥的因果關系,但如果體液免疫理論是正確的話,那么抗體引起移植失敗的結果是可以被預見的。當然有人可能會提出,HLA抗體是移植排斥的結果,而不是誘因。以下將提供HLA抗體為移植排斥之誘因的證據。
如果 HLA 抗體引起慢性排斥,它們應在移植排斥前被發現。我們發現在15例患者中有10例患者的HLA抗體出現在細支氣管炎性閉塞前。而12例未出現HLA抗體的患者,沒有一例發生細支氣管炎性閉塞(P< 0.001)[75]。很顯然細支氣管炎性閉塞的發生與HLA抗體相關。在一項對76例腎移植患者的研究中發現移植后產生抗體的12例患者中,有11例移植失敗,失敗率達92﹪。而術后未產生抗體的64例患者中僅有7例移植失敗,失敗率為11﹪(P< 0.001 )[81]。因此,HLA抗體可成為慢性排斥的前兆,并可在移植失敗前被發現。另一項類似的研究表明150例腎移植患者中,25﹪的患者存在抗體;帶有抗體的患者在移植3年后有6例移植失敗;而不帶有抗體的患者中只有1例失敗(P< 0.001 )[90]。
Lee等[91]的研究清楚地告訴我們,抗體在移植排斥前就已經出現(圖3)。8年期間,Lee每年對他的患者進行HLA抗體的監測,其中有14例患者在腎移植前沒有HLA抗體。圖3列出了這14例患者移植后產生HLA抗體的時間以及移植物丟失的時間。可以清楚地看到,移植物丟失與HLA抗體的出現明顯相關,既移植失敗前均發現抗體的產生。許多病歷顯示,從抗體出現到排斥的發生需要幾年的時間。這表明抗體的破壞作用具有不穩定的時間長度,可長可短。
在一項包括24個中心的有關腎移植慢性排斥的前瞻性國際合作研究中研究人員對1629例移植前 HLA 抗體陰性的患者進行 HLA 抗體的監測。移植6個月后各研究中心提供了移植失敗的詳細報告。在 212 例出現 HLA 抗體的患者移植失敗率為3.3﹪,而沒有出現HLA抗體的1417例患者移植失敗率為1.3﹪(P< 0.05)。如果以死亡來作為移植失敗的指標,那么沒有抗體的患者移植失敗率為1.8﹪,而帶有抗體的患者其失敗率則為3.8﹪(P< 0.05)。因此可以斷定存在HLA抗體的移植患者其移植失敗率明顯高于沒有HLA抗體的患者。這項前瞻性的研究還在繼續,并通過監測HLA抗體提示移植失敗的發生。
也許有人會問“為什么產生抗體的患者移植失敗率不是100﹪呢?”原因是,我們只對這些患者跟蹤調查了6個月。我們從文獻報道中發現迄今為止只有上述Lee等人的研究對HLA抗體監測達到8年的時間。該研究也顯示即便有的患者移植后長期帶有HLA抗體,但最終還是無法避免移植失敗(圖3)[91]。我們的假設是,抗體與內皮細胞結合后引起的損害-修復過程可以持續數個月,甚至數年。此時血管壁會緩慢及逐漸增厚。值得注意是,所有涉及移植后HLA抗體的研究,移植患者中大約有30﹪存在HLA抗體。這與體液免疫理論并不矛盾。因為體液免疫理論的假設是抗體對移植物的損害是逐漸的,并最終導致移植失敗。遺憾的是,到現在為止我們還不了解移植抗體自然產生的規律。例如,在一些病例中,抗體會因免疫抑制劑的應用而消失,而后又會重現。希望我們的前瞻性研究會為此提供更多的信息。

圖3 對移植前抗體陰性的 14 例患者的每年監測結果
迄今為止,我們所談的HLA抗體都是通過特殊群體細胞或抗原檢測出來的。并且許多研究所用的細胞并非直接來自供者。近期發展的流式細胞儀磁珠法使得研究血清中抗體的特異性成為可能。通過基因重組技術該方法可從細胞獲得單一抗原,并包被到微磁珠上,然后通過流式細胞儀檢測抗體的特異性[92]。有趣的是,發生腎移植排斥的患者所擁有抗體的特異性并不同于被動免疫所獲得的抗體特異性。實際上,該現象已經受到重視。例如,Ceppellini根據其免疫計劃,仔細挑選受體和供體。希望能獲得單價特異性血清。然而,盡管付出了大量努力,幾乎沒有獲得直接針對供者錯配所產生的特異性的“純凈”血清。而通過對數千孕婦的血清進行篩查,卻獲得了單價特異性血清。免疫或致敏常常產生額外的抗體特異性。其原因尚不清楚。
Lee和Pei等[91-92]也發現,通常發生移植排斥的患者,其機體產生的抗體并非是針對供者的特異性抗體,而且此類抗體在排斥后便出現在血清中。我們提出的假設是:針對供者的特異性抗體在排斥發生的過程中被移植物所吸收,而在外圍血液循環中出現的抗體為額外抗體。因此,在Lee等的研究盡管檢測出來的是供體的非特異性抗體,仍證實了抗體與排斥之間的緊密的關系。
非特異性反應現象可以解釋為抗體僅僅是機體免疫應答的指標,它們可能與排斥反應無直接關系。然而針對供者的特異性抗體可在移植排斥后被檢測出[92],提示抗體未必只單純地起到反應指標的作用。
接受體液免疫理論的一個重要結果就是我們現在可以通過降低抗體水平和監控抗體來為患者治療。3例接受活體供者移植并發生急性排斥的患者通過血漿置換和靜脈IgG (intravenous immunoglobulin G, IVIgG )獲得了成功的治療[93]。用血漿置換與 IVIgG治療5例用流式細胞儀檢測出特異性抗體的患者也是很成功的。在 6 例 PRA 抗體水平的平均值為 65﹪的患者中,利用富含蛋白A的層析柱進行抗體免疫吸收治療后,其中的5個患者在跟蹤54個月后證明是有效的[94]。
IVIgG 治療已被證實能降低 HLA 抗體水平[95-96]。經過用 IVIgG 抗體進行抗體脫敏治療的15 例中有 13 例患者是有效的[97]。盡管確切的機理尚不清楚[98],但可以假定抗體是造成損害的主要元兇。
4 例在移植后4~16年經歷慢性體液免疫排斥的患者,在應用FK506和嗎替麥考酚酯( mycophenolate mofetil, MMF )治療后獲得顯著療效[99]。經過治療,供者特異性抗體的滴度明顯下降,血清肌酐水平保持穩定。同樣,MMF方法對于ABO血型不匹配的腎臟移植患者在降低抗A、抗B抗體的滴度是有效的[100]。某些藥物是否可以影響體液免疫還需進一步的臨床研究。在一項對86例心移植患者的研究中,用MMF方法治療后抗體產生量要比用硫唑嘌呤方法治療形成的少[101]。
Aranda 等[102]在2002年的報道顯示,采用直接針對 B 細胞的抗CD20單克隆抗體方法治療1例急性心移植體液排斥的患者是有效的。這個患者的排斥反應得到了控制,并在治療后至少一年內沒有發生排斥的指征。
有關 HLA 一類抗體和二類抗體相對重要性的問題仍待解決[103]。至于 HLA 抗體型,大部分實驗涉及的抗體為IgG。監測5例存在IgM抗體交叉配型陽性的移植患者,并未發現急性排斥,并且患者早期功能狀態良好[104]。另一項研究表明通過流式細胞儀檢測出IgM交叉配型陽性的患者其存活率比IgM抗體陰性交叉配型的患者反而略高一些[105]。而移植前IgA抗體的出現與高的移植存活率具有密切聯系[106-108]。
影響移植的抗體也可能是針對非 HLA 抗原的抗體。在發生排斥的腎移植患者血清中發現的MICA 抗體引起了人們的關注,因這些抗體是在內皮細胞而非淋巴細胞上檢測到的[109-112]。在排斥同種異體移植物的患者體內,抗體也有針對上皮細胞,單核細胞和內皮細胞系的[113-116]。此外針對內皮細胞的抗體未必是多態性的,且可能是繼發于損傷之后[117]。有關抗內皮細胞抗體引起的超急排斥也有相應的報道[118]。
某些抗體,例如自身抗體可能對移植有幫助[119]。如果在移植前出現抗 Fab 的抗體則是有益的[120]。近期顯示,抗 Fab 的 IgA 自身抗體可提高移植存活率[108]。它們也許可以中和傳統的細胞毒抗體的活性。HLA的抗獨特型抗體也可能具有相反的作用[121-123]。
次要組織相容性位點并不是 HLA,他們在移植中也很重要。在骨髓移植中,來自HLA完全相同的近親供者的移植器官會發生緩慢的排斥以及移植物抗宿主反應。而針對次要組織相容性位點的抗體還未被發現。
血清中可溶性 HLA 抗原可能與血清中 HLA抗體結合,干擾了HLA抗體的測量[68-124]。肝移植患者體內的可溶性抗原可能會抑制抗體的活動[125]。
抗體是體液免疫理論中關鍵的激發因素,但抗體是怎樣通過一系列活動來產生損害尚待查明。有關 HLA 抗體粘附在內皮細胞及傳遞激活信號的研究也有許多報道[126-127]。
最引人注意且仍然是懸而未決的研究是找到與抗體發生反應的抗原決定族。與我們現在所用的抗原相比,這些抗原決定簇能給我們提供更加精確的器官移植供體與受體的配型檢測。
本文對支持器官移植體液免疫理論的大量證據進行了綜述,目的是激發這個領域的進一步研究,以證實該理論的正確。從 1959 年起[128],作者一直在此假設的前提下進行相關的研究。盡管在體外抗體可以在數分鐘內殺死細胞,但是理解以下一點至關重要,那就是抗體可能會用數月或數年的時間使血管內壁增厚,最終使移植器官栓塞。移植術后有的患者體內出現HLA抗體,但移植的器官功能良好。對此的第一反應是似乎HLA抗體并不重要。只有通過一段時間的隨訪才能看到抗體的重要性。
希望這篇綜述的發表能起到拋磚引玉的作用,引來其他研究人員對細胞免疫理論的類似的綜述。例如,是否存在細胞的直接活動而造成超急排斥或慢性排斥。如果細胞免疫能夠引起急性排斥,它們之間的因果關系的強度到底有多大呢?
志謝由衷地感謝Dr Michael Cecka 為此綜述所提供的幫助和建議;感謝美國萊姆德公司北京代表處的中文翻譯
1 Gorer PA. Some recent work on tumor immunity[J]. Adv in Cancer Res, 1956, 4:149-186.
2 Patel R, Terasaki PI. Significance of the positive crossmatch test in kidney transplantation[J]. N Engl J Med, 1969,280(14):735-739.
3 Scornik JC, LeFor WM, Cicciarelli JC, et al. Hyperacute and acute kidney graft rejection due to antibodies against B cells[J].Transplantation, 1992, 54(1):61-64.
4 Frost AE, Jammal CT, Cagle PT. Hyperacute rejection following lung transplantation[J]. Chest, 1996, 110(2):559-562.
5 Scornik JC, Zander DS, Baz MA, et al.Susceptibility of lung transplants to preformed donor-specific HLA antibodies as detected by flow cytometry[J].Transplantation, 1999, 68(10):1542-1546.
6 Higuchi ML, Bocchi E, Fiorelli A, et al. Histopathologic aspects of hyperacute graft rejection in human cardiac transplantation. A case report [J]. Arq Bras Cardiol, 1989, 52(1):39-41.
7 Iwaki Y, Terasaki PI. Primary nonfunction in human cadaver kidney transplantation: evidence for hidden hyperacute rejection[J].Clin Transplantantation, 1987, 1:125-131.
8 Nishikawa K, Terasaki PI. Annual trends and triple therapy: 1991–2000[J]. Clinical Transpl, 2001:247-269.
9 Ward HN. Pulmonary infiltrates associated with leukoagglutinin transfusion reactions[J]. Ann Intern Med, 1970,73(5):689-694.
10 Popovsky MA, Moore SB. Diagnostic and pathogenetic considerations in transfusion-related acute lung injury[J].Transfusion, 1985, 25(6):573-577.
12 Lopez-Cepero M, Sanders CE, Buggs J, et al. Sensitization of renal transplant candidates by cryopreserved adaveric venous or arterial allografts[J]. Transplantation, 2002, 73(5):817-819.
13 Terasaki PI, Kreisler M, Mickey RM. Presensitization and kidney transplant failures[J]. Postgrad Med J, 1971,47(544):89-100.
14 O’Rourke RW, Osorio RW, Freise CE, et al. Flow cytometry crossmatching as a predictor of acute rejection in ensitized recipients of cadaveric renal transplants[J]. Clin Transplant, 2000, 14(2):167-173.
15 Bryan CF, Baier KA, Nelson PW, et al. Long-term graft sur- vival is improved in cadaveric renal retransplantation by flow cytometric crossmatching[J]. Transplantation, 1998, 66(12):1827-1832.
16 O’Malley KJ, Cook DJ, Roeske L, et al. Acute rejection and the flow cytometry crossmatch[J]. Transplant Proc,1999, 31(1):1216-1217.
17 El Fettouh HA, Cook DJ, Bishay E, et al. Association between a positive flow cytometry crossmatch and the development of chronic rejection in primary renal transplantation[J]. Urology, 2000, 56(3):369-372.
18 Bryan CF, Shield CF, Pierce GE, et al. Successful cadaveric renal transplantation of patients highly sensitized toHLA Class I antigens[J]. Clin Transplant, 2000, 14(1):79-84.
19 Kerman RH, Orosz CG, Lorber MI. Clinical relevance of anti-HLA antibodies pre and post transplant[J]. Am J Med Sci, 1997, 313(5):275-278.
20 Gebel HM, Bray RA, Ruth JA, et al. Flow PRA to detect clinically relevant HLA antibodies[J]. Transplant Proc,2001, 33(1-2):477.
21 Gebel HM, Bray RA. Sensitization and sensitivity: defining the unsensitized patient[J]. Transplantation, 2000,69(7):1370-1374.
22 Susal C, Opelz G. Predictive power of ELISA-detected anti-HLA class I antibodies in pediatric kidney transplantation [J]. Transplant Proc, 2001, 33(1):1730-1731.
23 Dilioglou S, Cruse JM, Lewis RE. High panel reactive antibody against cross-reactive group antigens as a contraindication to renal allotransplantation[J]. Exp Mol Pathol, 2001, 71(1):73-78.
24 Emonds MP, Herman J, Dendievel J, et al. Evaluation of anti-human leukocyte antigen allo-immunization in pediatric cadaveric kidney transplantation[J]. Pediatric Transplant, 2000, 4(1):6-11.
25 Karpinski M, Rush D, Jeffery J, et al. Flow cytometric crossm-atching in primary renal transplant recipients with a negative antihuman globulin enhanced cytotoxicity crossmatch[J]. J Am Soc Nephrol, 2001, 12(12):2807-2814.
26 Mahoney RJ, Taranto S, Edwards E. B-cell crossmatching and kidney allograft outcome in 9031 United States transplant recipients[J]. Hum Immunol, 2002, 63(4):324-335.
27 Bishay ES, Cook DJ, El Fettouh H, et al. The impact of HLA sensitization and donor cause of death in heart transplantation[J]. Transplantation, 2000, 70(1):220-222.
28 Kerman RH, Susskind B, Kerman D, et al. Comparison of PRASTAT. sHLA-EIA, and anti-human globulin-panel reactive antibody to identify alloreactivity in pretransplantation sera of heart ransplant recipients: correlation to rejection and posttransplantation coronary artery disease[J]. J Heart Lung Transplant, 1998, 17(8):789-794.
29 Przybylowski P, Balogna M, Radovancevic B, et al. The role of flow cytometry-detected IgG and IgM anti-donor antibodies in cardiac allograft recipients[J]. Transplantation, 1999, 67(2):258-262.
30 mbur AR, Bray RA, Takemoto SK, et al. Flow cytometric detection of HLA-specific antibodies as a predictor of heart allograft rejection[J]. Transplantation, 2000, 70(7):1055-1059.
31 Saidman SL, Duquesnoy RJ, Demetris AJ, et al. Combined liverkidney transplantation and the effect of preformed lymphocytotoxic antibodies[J]. Transpl Immunol, 1994, 2(1):61-67.
32 Doran TJ, Geczy AF, Painter D, et al. A large single center investigation of the immunogenetic factors affecting liver transplantation[J]. Transplantation, 2000, 69(7):1491-1498.
33 Scornik JC, Soldevilla-Pico C, Van der Werf WJ, et al. Susceptibility of liver allografts to high or low concentrations of preformed antibodies as measured by flow cytometry[J]. Am J Transplant, 2001, 1(2):152-156.
34 Bishara A, Brautbar C, Eid A, et al. Is presensitization relevant to liver transplantation outcome[J]? Hum Immunol,2002, 63(9):742-750.
35 Feucht HE, Schneeberger H, Hillebrand G, et al. Capillary deposition of C4d complement fragment and early renal graft loss. Kidney Int, 1993, 43(6):1333-1338.
36 Lederer SR, Kluth-Pepper B, Schneeberger H, et al. Impact of humoral alloreactivity early after transplantation on the long-term survival of renal allografts. Kidney Int, 2001, 59(1):334-341.
37 Feucht HE, Lederer SR, Kluth B. Humoral alloreactivity in recipients of renal allografts as a risk factor for the development of delayed graft function[J]. Transplantation, 1998, 65(5):757-758.
38 Behr TM, Feucht HE, Richter K, et al. Detection of humoral rejection in human cardiac allografts by assessing the capillary deposition of complement fragment C4d in endomyocardial biopsies[J]. J Heart Lung Transplant, 1999,18(9):904-912.
39 Crespo M, Pascual M, Tolkoff-Rubin N, et al. Acute humoral rejection in renal allograft recipients. I. Incidence,serology and clinical characteristics[J]. Transplantation, 2001, 71(5):652-658.
40 Mauiyyedi S, Pelle PD, Saidman S, et al. Chronic humoral rejection: identification of antibody-mediated chronic renal allograft rejection by C4d deposits in peritubular capillaries[J]. J Am Soc Nephrol, 2001, 12(3):574-582.
41 Mauiyyedi S, Colvin RB. Humoral rejection in kidney transplantation. new concepts in diagnosis and treatment[J].Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens, 2002, 11(6):609-618.
42 Mauiyyedi S, Crespo M, Collins AB, et al. Acute humoral rejection in kidney transplantation. II. Morphology,immunopathology, and pathologic classification[J]. J Am Soc Nephrol, 2002, 13(3):779-787.
43 Collins AB, Schneeberger EE, Pascual MA, et al. Complement activation in acute humoral renal allograft rejection:diagnostic significance of C4d deposits in peritubular capillaries[J]. J Am Soc Nephrol, 1999, 10(10):2208-2214.
44 Regele HEM, Watschinger B, Wenter C, et al. Endothelial C4d deposition is associated with inferior kidney allograft outcome independently of cellular rejection[J]. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 2001, 16(10):2058-2066.
45 Bohmig GA, Exner M, Habicht A, et al. Capillary C4d deposition in kidney allografts: a specific marker of alloantibody-dependent graft injury[J]. J Am Soc Nephrol, 2002, 13(4):1091-1099.
46 Bohmig GA, Exner M, Watschinger B, et al. Acute humoral renal allograft rejection[J]. Curr Opin Urol, 2002,12(11):95-99.
47 Watschinger B, Pascual M. Capillary C4d deposition as a marker of humoral immunity in renal allograft rejection[J].J Am Soc Nephrol, 2002, 13(9):2420-2423.
48 Nickeleit V, Zeiler M, Gudat F, et al. Detection of the complement degradation product C4d in renal allografts:diagnostic and therapeutic implications[J]. J Am Soc Nephrol, 2002, 13(1):242-251.
49 Herzenberg AM, Gill JS, Djurdjev O, et al. C4d deposition in acute rejection: an independent long-term prognostic factor[J]. J Am Soc Nephrol, 2002, 13(1): 234-241.
50 Halloran PF, Melk A, Barth C. Rethinking chronic Allograft Nephropathy – The concept of Accelerated Senescence[J]. J Am Soc Nephrol, 1999, 10(1):167-181.
51 Halloran PF. Call for revolution: a new approach to describing allograft deterioration[J]. Am J Transplant, 2002,2(3):195-200.
52 Morris PJ, Mickey MR, Singal DP, et al. Serotyping for homotransplantation.ⅩⅫ. Specificity of cytotoxic antibodies developing after renal transplantation[J]. Br Med J, 1969, 1(5646):758-759.
53 Jeannet M, Pinn VW, Flax MH, et al. Humoral antibodies in renal allotransplantation in man[J]. N Engl J Med,1970, 282(3):111-117.
54 Soulillou JP, Peyrat MA, Guenel J. Association between treatment-resistant kidney-allograft rejections and posttransplant appearance of antibodies to donor B-lymphocyte alloantigens[J]. Lancet, 1978, 1(8060):354-356.
55 Iwaki Y, Terasaki PI, Iwatsuki S, et al. Posttransplant serum analysis in human kidney allografts[J]. Transplant Proc,1981, 13(1):178-180.
56 McKenna RM, Takemoto SK, Terasaki PI. Anti HLA antibodies after solid organ transplantation[J]. Transplantation,2000, 69(3):319-326.
57 Martin S, Dyer PA, Mallick NP, et al. Posttransplant antidonor lymphocytotoxic antibody production in relation to graft outcome[J]. Transplantation, 1987, 44(1):50-53.
58 Scornik JC, Salomon DR, Lim PB, et al. Posttransplant antidonor antibodies and graft rejection. Evaluation by twocolor flow cytometry[J]. Transplantation, 1989, 47(2):287-290.
59 Suciu-Foca N, Reed E, Marboe C, et al. The role of anti-HLA antibodies in heart transplantation[J]. Transplantation,1991, 51(3):716-724.
60 Halloran PF, Schlaut J, Solez K, et al. The significance of the anti-class Ⅰ response. Ⅱ. Clinical and pathologic features of renal transplants with anti-class I-like antibody[J]. Transplantation, 1992, 53(3):550-555.
61 al-Hussein KA, Shenton BK, Bell A, et al. Characterization of donor-directed antibody class in the post-transplant period using flow cytometry in renal transplantation[J]. Transplant Int, 1994, 7(3):182-189.
62 Trpkov K, Campbell P, Pazderka F, et al. Pathologic features of acute renal allograft rejection associated with donorspecific antibody, Analysis using the Banff grading schema[J]. Transplantation, 1996, 61(11):1586-1592.
63 Monteiro F, Mineiro C, Rodrigues H, et al. Pretransplant and posttransplant monitoring of anti-HLA class Ⅰ IgG1 antibodies by ELISA identifies patients at high risk of graft loss[J]. Transplantation Proc, 1997, 29(2): 1433-1434.
64 Abe M, Kawai T, Futatsuyama K, et al. Postoperative production of anti-donor antibody and chronic rejection in renal transplantation[J]. Transplantation, 1997, 63(11):1616-1619.
65 Scheonemann C, Groth J, Leverenz S, et al. HLA class I and class II antibodies: monitoring before and after kidney transplantation and their clinical relevance[J]. Transplantation, 1998, 65(11):1519-1523.
66 Piazza A, Adorno D, Poggi E, et al. Flow cytometry crossmatch: a sensitive technique for assessment of acute rejection in renal transplantation[J]. Transplantation Proc, 1998, 30(5):1769-1771.
67 Christiaans MH, Overhof-de Roos R, Nieman F, et al. Donor-specific antibodies after transplantation by flow cytometry: relative change in fluorescence ratio most sensitive risk factor for graft survival[J]. Transplantation,1998, 65(3):427-433.
68 Suciu-Foca N, Reed E, D’Agati VD, et al. Soluble HLA antigens, anti-HLA antibodies, and antiidiotypic antibodies in the circulation of renal transplant recipients[J]. Transplantation, 1991, 51(3):593-601.
69 Smith JD, Danskine AJ, Rose ML, et al. Specificity of lymphocytotoxic antibodies formed after cardiac transplantation and correlation with rejection episodes[J]. Transplantation, 1992, 53(6):1358-1362.
70 Barr ML, Cohen DJ, Benvenisty AI, et al. Effect of anti-HLA antibodies on the long-term survival of heart and kidney allografts[J]. Transplantation Proc, 1993, 25(1): 262-264.
71 rge JF, Kirklin JK, Shroyer TW, et al. Utility of posttransplan-tation panelreactive antibody measurements for the prediction Humoral Theory of Transplantation of rejection frequency and survival of heart transplant recipients[J]. J Heart Lung Transplant, 1995, 14:856-864.
72 McCarthy JF, Cook DJ, Massad MG, et al. Vascular rejection post heart transplantation is associated with positive flow cytometric cross-matching[J]. Eur J Cardio-Thoracic Surg, 1998, 14(5):197-200.
73 Schulman LL, Ho EK, Reed EF, et al. Immunologic monitoring in lung allograft recipients[J]. Transplantation,1996, 61(2):252-257.
74 Sundaresan S, Mohanakumar T, Smith MA, et al. HLA-A locus mismatches and development of antibodies to HLA after lung transplantation correlate with the development of bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome[J]. Transplantation,1998, 65(5):648-653.
75 Jaramillo A, Smith MA, Phelan D, et al. Development of ELISAdetected anti-HLA antibodies precedes the development of bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome and correlates with progressive decline in pulmonary function after lung transplantation[J]. Transplantation, 1999, 67(8):1155-1161.
76 Kasahara M, Kiuchi T, Takakura K, et al. Postoperative flow cytometry crossmatch in living donor liver transplantation:clinical significance of humoral immunity in acute rejection[J]. Transplantation, 1999, 67(4):568-575.
77 Roy R, Boisjoly HM, Wagner E, et al. Pretransplant and posttransplant antibodies in human corneal transplantation[J]. Transplantation, 1992, 54(3):463-467.
78 Hahn AB, Foulks GN, Enger C, et al. The association of lymphocytotoxic antibodies with corneal allograft rejection in high risk patients. The Collaborative Corneal Transplantation Studies Research Group[J]. Transplantation, 1995,59(1):21-27.
79 Muller-Steinhardt M, Fricke L, Kirchner H, et al. Monitoring of anti-HLA class Ⅰ and Ⅱ antibodies by flow cytometry in patients after first cadaveric kidney transplantation[J]. Clin Transplant, 2000, 14(1):85-89.
80 Kerman RH, Katz SM, Van Buren CT, et al. Posttransplant immune monitoring of anti-HLA antibody[J]. Transplant Proc, 2001, 33(1):402.
81 Worthington JE, Martin S, Dyer PA, et al. An Association Between Posttransplant Antibody Production and Renal Transplant Rejection[J]. Transplant Proc, 2001, 33(1): 475-476.
82 Piazza A, Poggi E, Borrelli L, et al. Impact of donor-specific antibodies on chronic rejection occurrence and graft loss in renal transplantation: posttransplant analysis using flow cytometric techniques[J]. Transplantation, 2001,71(8):1106-1112.
83 Piazza A, Borrelli L, Monaco PI, et al. Posttransplant donorspecific antibody characterization and kidney graft survival[J]. Transplant Int, 2000, 13 (Suppl. 1): S439-S443.
84 Pelletier RP, Hennessy PK, Adams PW, et al. Clinical significance of MHC-reactive alloantibodies that develop after kidney or kidney-pancreas transplantation[J]. Am J Transplant, 2002, 2(2):134-141.
85 Palmer SM, Davis RD, Hadjiliadis D, et al. Development of an antibody specific to major histocompatibility antigens detectable by flow cytometry after lung transplant is associated with bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome[J].Transplantation, 2002, 74(6):799-804.
86 Lau CL, Palmer SM, Posther KE, et al. Influence of panel-reactive antibodies on posttransplant outcomes in lung transplant recipients[J]. Ann Thorac Surg, 2000, 69(5):1520-1524.
87 Park MS, Terasaki PI, Lau M, et al. Sensitization after transplantation[J]. Clin Transplant, 1987, 1987:393-397.
88 Harmer AW, Koffman CG, Heads AJ, et al. Sensitization to HLA antigens occurs in 95﹪ of primary renal transplant rejections[J]. Transplant Proc, 1995, 27(1):666-667.
89 El-Awar N, Terasaki PI, Lazda V, et al. Almost all patients who are waiting for a regraft of a kidney transplant have anti HLA antibodies[J]. Transplant Proc, 2002, 34(7):2531-2532.
90 Chan L, Terasaki PI, El-Awar N, et al. Chronic failure after 3 years predicted by presence of Class Ⅱ HLA antibodies[J]. Am J Transplant, 2002, 2 (3):407.
91 Lee PC, Terasaki PI, Takemoto SK, et al. All chronic rejection failures of kidney transplants preceded by development of HLA antibodies. Transplantation, 2002, 74(8):1192-1194.
92 Pei R, Lee JH, Shih NJ, et al. Single HLA antigen flow cytometry beads for accurate identification of HLA antibody specificities[J]. Transplantation, 2003, 75(1):43-49.
93 Montgomery RA, Zachary AA, Racusen LC, et al. Plasmapheresis and intravenous immune globulin provides effective rescue therapy for refractory humoral rejection and allows kidneys to be successfully transplanted into cross-match-positive recipients[J]. Transplantation, 2000, 70(6):887-895.
94 Hickstein H, Korten G, Bast R, et al. Immunoadsorption of sensitized kidney transplant candidates immediately prior to surgery[J]. Clin Transplant, 2002, 16(2):97-101.
95 McIntyre JA, Higgins N, Britton R, et al. Utilization of intravenous immunoglobulin to ameliorate alloantibodies in a highly sensitized patient with a cardiac assist device awaiting heart transplantation. Fluorescence-activated cell sorter analysis[J]. Transplantation, 1996, 62(5): 691-693.
96 Jordan SC, Quartel AW, Czer LS, et al. Posttransplant therapy using high-dose human immunoglobulin(intravenous gammaglobulin) to control acute humoral rejection in renal and cardiac allograft recipients and potential mechanism of action[J]. Transplantation, 1998, 66(6):800-805.
97 Glotz D, Antoine C, Julia P, et al. Desensitization and subsequent kidney transplantation of patients using intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIg) [J]. Am J Transplant, 2002, 2(8):758-760.
98 Jordan SC. Management of the highly HLA- sensitized patient. A novel role for intravenous gammaglobulin[J].Am J Transplant, 2002, 2(8):691-692.
99 Theruvath TP, Saidman SL, Mauiyyedi S, et al. Control of antidonor antibody production with tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil in renal allograft recipients with chronic rejection[J]. Transplantation, 2001, 72(1):77-83.
100 Ishida H, Tanabe K, MF, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil suppresses the production of anti-blood type antibodies after renal transplantation across the ABO blood barrier: Elisa to detect humoral activity[J]. Transplantation, 2002,74(8):1187-1189.
101 Rose ML, Smith J, Dureau G, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil decreases antibody production after cardiac transplantation[J]. J Heart Lung Transplant, 2002, 21(2):282-285.
102 Aranda JM Jr, Scornik JC, Normann SJ, et al. Anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody (rituximab) therapy for acute cardiac humoral rejection: a case report[J]. Transplantation, 2002, 73(8):907-910.
103 Susal C, Opelz G. Kidney graft failure and presensitization against HLA class Ⅰ and class Ⅱ antigens[J].Transplantation, 2002, 73(8):1269-1273.
104 McCalmon RT Jr, Tardif GN, Sheehan MA, et al. IgM antibodies in renal transplantation[J]. Clin Transplant, 1997,11(6):558-564.
105 Kerman RH, Susskind B, Buyse I, et al. Flow cytometr- ydetected IgG is not a contraindication to renal transplantation: IgM may be beneficial to outcome[J]. Trans- plantation, 1999, 68(12):1855-1858.
106 Koka P, Chia D, Terasaki PI, et al. The role of IgA anti-HLA class I antibodies in kidney transplant survival[J].Transplantation, 1993, 56(1):207-211.
107 Lim EC, Chia D, Gjertson DW, et al. In vitro studies to explain high renal allograft survival in IgA nephropathy patients. Transplantation, 1993, 55(5):996-999.
108 Susal C, Dohler B, Opelz G. Graft-protective role of high pretransplantation IgA-anti-fab autoantibodies confirmatory evidence obtained in more than 4000 kidney transplants[J]. Transplantation, 2000, 69(7): 1337-1340.
109 Zwirner NW, Fernandez-Vina MA, Stastny P. MICA, a new polymorphic HLA-related antigen, is expressed mainly by keratinocytes, endothelial cells, and monocytes[J]. Immunogenetics, 1998, 47(2):139-148.
110 Zwirner NW, Dole K, Stastny P. Differential surface expression of MICA by endothelial cells, fibroblasts,keratinocytes, and monocytes[J]. Hum Immunol, 1999, 60(4):323-330.
111 Zou YMF, Lazaro A, Zhang Y, et al. MICA is a target for complement-dependent cytotoxicity with mouse monoclonal antibodies and human alloantibodies[J]. Hum Immunol, 2002, 63(1):30-39.
112 Sumitran-Holgersson SWH, Holgersson J, Soderstrom K. Identification of the nonclassical HLA molecules. MICA,as targets for humoral immunity associated with irreversible rejection of kidney allografts[J]. Transplantation,2002, 74(2):268-277.
113 al-Hussein KA, Talbot D, Proud G, et al. The clinical significance of post-transplantation non-HLA antibodies in renal transplantation[J]. Transplant Int, 1995, 8(3):214-220.
114 Smith JD, Crisp SJ, Dunn MJ, et al. Pre-transplant anti-epithelial cell antibodies and graft failure after single lung transplantation[J]. Transpl Immunol, 1995, 3(1):68-73.
115 Dunn MJ, Crisp SJ, Rose ML, et al. Anti-endothelial antibodies and coronary artery disease after cardiac transplantation[J]. Lancet, 1992, 339(8809):1566-1570.
116 Ferry BL, Welsh KI, Dunn MJ, et al. Anti-cell surface endothelial antibodies in sera from cardiac and kidney transplant recipients: association with chronic rejection[J]. Transpl Immunol, 1997, 5(1):17-24.
117 Faulk W, Rose ML, Meroni P, et al. Antibodies to endothelial cells identify myocardial damage and predict development of coronary artery disease in patients with transplanted hearts[J]. Hum Immunol, 1999,60(9):826-832.
118 Sumitran-Karuppan S, Tyden G, Reinholt F, et al. Hyperacute rejections of two consecutive renal allografts and early loss of the third transplant caused by non-HLA antibodies specific for endothelial cells[J]. Transpl Immunol,1997, 5(9):321-327.
119 Terness PI, Navolan D, Dufter C,et al. Immuno- suppressive anti-immunoglobulin autoantibodies. specificity, gene structure and function in health and disease[J]. (Noisy-legrand) Cell Mol Biol, 2002, 48(3): 271-278.
120 Horimi T, Chia D, Terasaki PI, et al. Association of anti-F (ab0) 2 antibodies with higher kidney transplant survival rates[J]. Transplantation, 1982, 33(6): 603-605.
121 Mohanakumar T, Rhodes C, Mendez-Picon G, et al. Antiidiotypic antibodies to human major histocompatibility complex class I and II antibodies in hepatic transplantation and their role in allograft survival[J]. Transplantation,1987, 44(4):54-58.
122 Hardy MA, Suciu-Foca N, Reed E, et al. Immun- omodulation of kidney and heart transplants by anti-idiotypic antibodies[J]. Ann Surg, 1991, 214(4): 522-528.
123 Chauhan B, Phelan DL, Marsh JW, et al. Character- ization of antiidiotypic antibodies to donor HLA that develop after liver transplantation[J]. Transplantation, 1993, 56(2):443-448.
124 Reed EF, Hong B, Ho E, et al. Monitoring of soluble HLA alloantigens and anti-HLA antibodies identifies heart allograft recipients at risk of transplant-associated coronary artery disease[J]. Transplantation, 1996,61(4):566-572.
125 Mathew JM, Shenoy S, Phelan D, et al. Biochemical and immunological evaluation of donor-specific soluble HLA in the circulation of liver transplant recipients[J]. Transplantation, 1996, 62(2):217-223.
126 Bian H, Harris PE, Reed EF. Ligation of HLA class I molecules on smooth muscle cells with anti-HLA antibodies induces tyrosine phosphorylation, fibroblast growth factor receptor expression and cell proliferation[J]. Int Immunol, 1998, 10(9):1315-1323.
127 Jin Y, Du Singh RZ, Rajasekaran A, et al. Ligation of HLA class I molecules on endothelial cells induces phosphorylation of Src, paxillin, and focal adhesion kinase in an actin-dependent manner[J]. J Immunol, 2002,168(9):5415-5423.
128 Terasaki PI. Antibody response to homografts II. Preliminary studies of the time of appearance of lymphoagglutins upon homografting[J]. Am Surg, 1959, 25(5):896-899.