Global Governance and China-Africa Cooperation: Logical Motivation, Historical Foundation and Practical Needs

In 1875， French philosopher Ernest Renan openly stated， “We aspire not to equality but to domination. Countries inhabited by foreign races must become again countries of serfs， farm laborers， and factory workers.” This was a view of global governance based on racism in the 19th century. In 2018， Donald Trump， then President of the United States， in a meeting with members of Congress from both sides of the aisle to discuss reform of the immigration system， talked about immigrants from regions and countries such as Africa and Haiti， and questioned why the United States would take in immigrants from these “shithole countries”. In the United States and the West， there have been numerous such statements and practices， which show that the spectre of racism is undergoing a resurgence. From the perspective of historical continuity， the global order is still dominated by the West. However， there are signs indicating that the world is at a pivotal moment where the reform of the global governance system should be carried out without delay. Both China and African countries belong to the Global South. China-Africa cooperation has not only a deep historical foundation， but also the practical needs to promote the reform of the global governance system and the transformation of the global order.

Logical Motivation for System Reform： Global Changes at a Pivotal Moment

The global order in modern times was built on the basis of colonial rule. After the end of World War II， with the rise of the national independence movement， the United States replaced the old empires through the demonstration of power and policy arrangements， and began to monopolize global governance， including rule-making， information dissemination， and practical operation. This order follows the colonial pattern： a dominant group consisting mainly of Western countries or white people （including their proxies in the Southern countries） versus a group of Global South countries suffering from political oppression， racial discrimination and economic exploitation. Entering the 21st century， the Global South as a whole has grown in its overall strength， with a stronger call to change the unfair and inequitable situation. An ideal global order must be based on the common values of all humankind， advocate the principles of fairness， justice and inclusiveness， and represent the common interests of all countries in the world.

Along with the changes in the international balance of power， the world is approaching a “pivotal moment” of major changes， and the reform of the global governance system should not be delayed. In his address to the UN General Assembly on September 10， 2021， UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres warned that the world was facing a “pivotal moment” and that “all the old ways could lead to the collapse of the global order into a crisis-ridden， winner-takes-all world”， and that “much of the world’s unease is rooted in persistent poverty， hunger， lack of access to health care， education and income security， as well as growing inequality and injustice. 10 richest men saw their combined wealth increased by half a trillion dollars since the COVID-19 pandemic began while 55% of the world’s population， or 4 billion people are one step away from destitution.” Former U.S. diplomat and China expert Charles Freeman pointed out that “five centuries of EuroAtlantic hegemony have come to an end…this is a turning point in history， a pivotal moment.” The “pivotal moment” is highlighted in three aspects： Western civilization is mired in paradox; the Global South is self-reliant and opposed to hegemony; and emerging economies represented by China are pursuing the building of an equal and orderly multipolar world.

First， Western civilization is mired in the paradox of development. In recent times， Eurocentrism has politicized the concept of civilization， believing that “the Westerners/Europeans are civilized， and others are barbaric”. This has constituted the core of colonial discourse and became a tool for conquering and exploiting others. The international community is shaped as “an exclusive ‘club’ consisting of civilized nations”， and other “non-Western organized societies” or “non-European regions” are allowed to join the international community only with the approval of these civilized nations. However， the development of the “civilized” countries is now fraught with mounting problems， which are manifested in three paradoxes in the ways and results of the treatment between man and nature， between man and man， and between man and himself. To be more specific， these paradoxes include： the “civilized countries” bring greater damage to nature and to the environment; the “civilized countries” are more brutal in their ways of devastating lives; the “civilized countries” have the highest age-standardized suicide rate. We can therefore draw the conclusion that civilization is not determined but affected by the environment and that the universality of defining civilization in terms of physical markers （such as domestication， architecture， weapons， smelting， languages， religions） is questionable.

Second， the Global South is becoming more self-reliant and increasingly resistant to hegemony. The September 11 attacks in 2001 showed that the hegemonic position of the United States had begun to falter， and it had since implemented a series of erroneous strategies in the name of counter-terrorism， accelerating its own decline. Against this background， the power of the Global South， represented by emerging economies and developing countries， has continued to grow. They have been calling for and pushing for the reform of the inequitable international political and economic order， paying particular attention to safeguarding their own sovereignty and development rights and interests. For instance， the United States hoped to establish the U.S. Army Africa Command in Africa， with the intention of strengthening the coordination of its various military operations in Africa in the name of counter-terrorism， safeguarding its own economic interests and checking China’s expanding influence in Africa. This move was strongly opposed by most African countries. In the end， the United States could only set up its Africa Command in Stuttgart， Germany. In recent years， there has been a surge of opposition to Western hegemony in Africa， with France being forced to withdraw the last of its troops at the end of 2023 at the behest of the government of Niger. The transitional governments of Chad and Niger have also been calling for the withdrawal of U.S. troops in 2024. At the same time， countries of the Global South are firmly opposed to the manipulation of the regional situation by external forces. The Beijing Declaration on Ending Division and Strengthening Palestinian National Unity was officially signed on July 23， 2024， demonstrating the unity and self-reliance of the Middle Eastern countries in response to the regional changes.

Third， emerging economies represented by China are pursuing the establishment of an equal and orderly multipolar world. To promote the building of a more just and equitable world order， China has in recent years put forward the Belt and Road Initiative （BRI）， the vision of a human community with a shared future， and the three Global Initiatives， among other Chinese ideas and solutions. Taking the BRI as an example， in October 2023， representatives from more than 150 countries and 40 international organizations came to China to participate in the Third Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation. This has obviously made politicians from the Western countries envious. In May 2024， the U.S. House Select Committee on the Strategic Competition Between the United States and the Chinese Communist Party of China held a hearing on “All Roads Lead to Beijing？ The CPC’s Global Development Offensive”， seeking to find solutions countering China’s BRI. However， the attacks and denigration of the BRI from the West have not been able to stop the vast majority of countries from welcoming and recognizing this important international public good. So far， the BRI cooperation has already attracted the participation of more than three quarters of the countries in the world and over 30 international organizations. At the same time， the vision of a human community with a shared future， which recognizes a polycentric world， multiculturalism and greater democracy in international relations， creates the conditions for the peaceful development of humankind， and has a positive impact on Africa. According to the results of the 2022 African Youth Survey and the 2023 Gallup survey in Africa， African people are more positively disposed to China than to the United States. In fact， as early as 2011， historian Niall Ferguson already pointed out the decline of the West and the rise of China， and stated， “The clash of civilizations can be avoided. Different civilizations can coexist and even merge. The world is tilting from the West to the East， and it is not other civilizations that threaten Western civilization， but the West’s own problems.” In the face of long-accumulated global problems and challenges， it has been recognized that “the current system of global governance is unable to satisfactorily address the various problems in the economic， social， political and security fields in the context of globalization”. The international order is indeed at a “pivotal moment” and the reform of the global governance system needs to be carried out without delay.

China-Africa Cooperation Has a Deep Historical and Cultural Foundation

China and Africa share similar historical situations. The question of the origin of mankind is still being discussed， but the contribution made by Africa and China at different stages cannot be denied. The first four regions where pottery was independently invented were the Yangtze River Basin （ca. 18，000 B.C.）， the Heilongjiang River Basin （ca. 14，500 B.C.） in China， and the Mali region with Niger-Congo languages （ca. 9，500 B.C.） and the Niger-Saharan region of Central Africa （ca. 8，000 B.C.） in Africa. The melting point for making pottery （1850°C） was the same as for smelting metals， and metallurgical techniques were invented independently in several parts of Africa. These technologies predated Europe. The long civilizations of China and Africa were admired by Europeans. The explorer Olfert Dapper shared about the Kingdom of Benin in the 17th century， “They have their own laws and a well-organized police， and they keep on good terms with the Dutch， and other foreigners， who come to do business with them， and show great kindness to them.” Similarly， Gottfried Leibniz and Voltaire of the Enlightenment period were well known for their admiration of China.

There are also many similarities between Chinese and African cultural traditions and values， such as collectivism， sense of equality and tolerance. At the same time， both Chinese and African values emphasize equality and sharing. These concepts are embedded in ancient Chinese philosophy and shared African values， and are manifested in different ways.

In modern times， the colonial system deprived the colonies of human and material resources and basic human rights， with the Europeans dominating the world and making the concept of inequality the law. The colonial rule brought similar tragic sufferings to the Chinese and African people. Against this backdrop， Africa and China suffered from invasion and brutal suppression by the great powers， and the people of the two places fought back and resolutely resisted the imperialist policy of aggression. The decolonization process culminated in the collapse of the British Empire and the disintegration of the colonial system， the illegitimacy of which was established through international law. The establishment of the United Nations marked a new stage in global governance， which provided a new platform for China-Africa cooperation. Decolonization was well under way， but the adoption of the United Nations Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples （hereinafter referred to as the Declaration） was not an easy task. The original membership of the UN General Assembly was limited to the victorious countries of the anti-fascist alliance. In 1960， 16 out of the 19 new members admitted to the UN were African countries. With 10 African countries already joining the UN， there were altogether 26 UN member countries from the African continent. The accession of African countries gave decolonization a major boost， and their collective cohesion gave them ability to leverage political tactics. Three permanent members of the UN Security Council at the time remained in a “colonial” relationship， and any one of them could exercise the veto. Therefore the supporters of the Declaration decided to opt for a vote in the General Assembly rather than in the Security Council. The newly independent African states that were members of the General Assembly pushed for the successful adoption of the Declaration on December 14， 1960 at the General Assembly. The UN Special Committee on Decolonization was established in 1961， before China regained its legitimate seat in the UN. In order to counter the interference of some anti-Chinese forces in the UN， the Chinese government decided to adopt the principle of not counting Hong Kong and Macao as colonies， not recovering them for the time being， and maintaining the status quo， which was not understood by the Special Committee on Decolonization. In 1964， there were uncertainties when the Special Committee on Decolonization included Hong Kong and Macao in the list of Non-Self-Governing Territories and had discussions of the Hong Kong and Macao issue. China， with the help of Mali， then Chair of the UN， as well as Tanzania and Tunisia， excluded the Hong Kong and Macao issue from colonization issue and made it exempt from UN intervention by making it internal affairs of China. This is a typical example of China’s cooperation with Africa in skillfully using the UN as an institution of global governance to defend national sovereignty.

The West has been influencing the global system of thought， including language， religion， history， philosophy， and politics through various means. The decolonization of history， culture， social psychology and ideology will be a long-term task. Among them， the decolonization of ideology， in particular the ways of thinking and related concepts， has a long way to go， especially as post-colonialism continues to destroy African epistemologies. Decolonization， which was closely linked to national independence movements， was the first great revolution in global governance in recent times.

The Realistic Needs for China-Africa Cooperation to Promote the Reform of the Global Governance System

Although the colonies won their independence， the system and concept of global governance that followed were still controlled by the West. The West’s discrimination against countries of the South is deeply rooted， and has been rationalized in the name of “scientific evolution” and “philosophical rationalism”. In order to maintain their hegemony， the United States and the West have tried to control the discourse on modernization and have given various Western-style “prescriptions” to the late-developed countries. However， the “modernization” model imposed by the United States and the West on countries of the South ignores the reality of the countries concerned， and the vast number of developing countries are unable to independently master social transformation or development in the wave of modernization. This robber’s logic where the United States and the West manipulate “modernization”， is aimed at maintaining an unequal relationship between the two sides. The development of countries of the South has encountered a bottleneck， with the number of least developed countries increasing from 24 in 1971 to 46 in 2023， as recognized by the UN， and the widening gap between the North and the South has had a serious impact on the process of peace and development in the world.

The Western bloc dominated by the United States has been trying to maintain the unjust global order it has established. War is an effective means for the big capitalist group of the United States to gain excessive profits， and at the same time it has become a sinister way for the United States to establish and maintain its hegemony. Since the end of World War II， there have been no exceptions， such as the Korean War， the Vietnam War， the Gulf War， the Kosovo War， the Afghanistan War， the Iraq War， the “color revolutions” in the Middle East that began in 2010， as well as the so-called “anti-terrorist war” that has been going on all along. According to the findings of the Costs of War Project of the Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs at Brown University， four types of countries were involved in the U.S. three-year war on terrorism from 2018 to 2020， namely， direct airstrikes （7）， military personnel joining the war （12）， military exercises （41） and training countries （79）， involving 85 countries， mostly in the Asia-Africa region. It becomes quite obvious that the more the United States tries to fight terrorism， the more chaotic the situation becomes. Take Afghanistan as an example： in 2021， the ongoing war and turmoil resulted in nearly one-third of the Afghan population becoming refugees， 3.5 million people being displaced， and nearly 23 million people facing starvation， including 3.2 million children under the age of five. This situation， where one or a few powerful countries are allowed to manipulate the global order， leading to frequent tragedies， needs to be changed urgently.

In sharp contrast， the success of China-Africa cooperation has attracted attention on many fronts and has had a positive effect on the global governance system， particularly in terms of its mechanisms. The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation （FOCAC）， for example， was first proposed by the African side and created in 2000. It’s held alternately between China and African countries every three years， with all important matters agreed upon by both sides to ensure that the goals set for each session of the Forum are effectively accomplished. In September 2024， Chinese President Xi Jinping attended the opening ceremony of the FOCAC Beijing Summit and announced that bilateral relations between China and African countries having diplomatic ties with China were elevated to the level of strategic relations， and that the overall characterization of China-Africa relations was elevated to an all-weather China-Africa community with a shared future for the new era. The Beijing Declaration on Jointly Building an All-Weather China-Africa Community with a Shared Future for the New Era， and the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation Beijing Action Plan （2025-2027） were adopted at the summit. The model of FOCAC and its successful organization has caused many countries， including Japan， the ROK， Turkey and Iran， to follow suit. In addition to this， the United States proposed the Build Back Better World initiative in 2021， and the European Union put forward the Global Gateway program in the same year， both of which are largely modeled on the BRI， suggesting that China’s successful practices are reshaping the global order， and that it is difficult for the West to ignore the importance of global trade for human development and economic growth.

Another important area of China-Africa cooperation in the reform of the global governance system is the UN. Africa’s strong support for the restoration of China’s legitimate seat in the UN in 1971 was a true reflection of their willingness to participate in global governance with China in the international arena. It is undeniable that the credibility of the UN has been tarnished over the decades by its inability to stop some of the vicious incidents that have occurred. However， China and African countries have been supporting each other in their efforts to elevate the status of the Global South in the UN. In April 1974， the Sixth Special Session of the General Assembly adopted the Declaration and Program of Action on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order drafted by the Group of 77， which defined a series of important principles for the establishment of a new international economic order. The adoption of the Declaration and the Program of Action was a milestone for the Group of 77， as it was the first time that developing countries had negotiated as a group and achieved significant results. The success of the conference had greatly boosted the morale of the developing countries and strengthened their confidence in defending their own interests. In June 1992， at the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro， the Chinese delegation worked closely with the Group of 77 to form the “Group of 77 and China” model of cooperation， which strengthened the negotiating power of developing countries and enabled the conference to reach a consensus on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change （UNFCCC）， the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development， Agenda 21 and other outcome documents. It was due to the efforts of the Group of 77 and China that the General Assembly agreed to include the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” in the UNFCCC.

Since the 21st century， the issue of representation in the UN has become a key area in the reform of the global governance system. It’s fair to say that one of the hallmarks of the success in the reform of the global governance system is the enhanced representation of developing countries in the UN. African countries are paying greater attention to the goal of institutionalizing their participation in global governance. China has also been actively promoting solutions to the underrepresentation of African countries. From the beginning of the consultations between the AU Committee on Security Council Reform and representatives of the five permanent members of the Security Council in 2019， China has been firmly supporting the just position of African countries. In addition， China was the first country to explicitly state its support for the AU’s membership in the Group of 20 and for the AU to play a greater role in global governance. All of these fully reflect China’s strong support for Africa in redressing historical injustices.

Throughout history， the importance of China-Africa cooperation is self-evident. Africa is one of the important foundations of China’s international united front and an important strategic partner of China， as well as an important supplier of strategic materials， an important place for investment， an important market for commodities， an important financial breakthrough， and an important producer capacity partner of China. From the perspective of global governance， China-Africa cooperation has been steadily advancing. In recent years， the credibility and role of the UN have been undermined， and international organizations such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund are still dominated by developed countries， while the role of these international institutions remains irreplaceable in a range of global affairs， such as peace and war， the environment and climate， disasters and pandemics， green energy， food security， health， international migration， and the poverty reduction. It is now generally recognized in the Global South that reform of international institutions and transformation of the international order are imperative， and that China-Africa cooperation will continue to play a leading role in the process of reforming the global governance system.

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Li Anshan is Professor of the Peking University and Honorary President of the Chinese Society of African Historical Studies