明清建筑:博采眾長的典范

文/五花肉

（支持單位：上海市質(zhì)量和標準化研究院）

從大氣磅礴的紫禁城，到風(fēng)姿綽約的江南園林，歷經(jīng)秦漢、唐宋的發(fā)展，博采眾長、百花齊放的明清建筑，其設(shè)計理念和技術(shù)標準日臻完善，被公認為是中國古建筑的巔峰之作。

From the grand and majestic Forbidden City to graceful and charming gardens in Yangtze Delta area, architectures of the Ming and Qing Dynasties were enriched through solid development in the Qin, Han, Tang and Song Dynasties, were regarded as a crowning achievement in Chinese ancient architecture history, with the continuous development of design concepts and technical standards by extensively absorbing essential and advanced architectural ideas.

磚建材料標準化

Standardized Building Materials

受益于制磚技術(shù)的逐步成熟，明清時期的磚建房屋開始逐漸普及，對磚瓦的質(zhì)量要求也日趨嚴格。

Thanks to the continuous development of the brickmaking techniques, brick buildings were more and more commonly seen in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and the quality requirements on bricks and tiles were increasingly strict.

明洪武二十六年規(guī)定：“凡在京營造合用磚瓦，每歲于聚寶山置窯燒造，其大小、厚薄、樣制及人工、蘆柴數(shù)目，俱有定例。”磚瓦等建筑材料的制作、規(guī)格、用料自此有了嚴格的標準要求，這些標準的推廣實施也為日后清工部《工程做法則例》的出臺打下了扎實的技術(shù)基礎(chǔ)。

In 1393, it was prescribed that "For manufacture of bricks and tiles for architecture construction in Beijing, kilns shall be set at Jubaoshan (a local place in Beijing) annually, and the size, thickness,model, labor and firewood amount shall meet the requirements." Development and implementation of these standards laid solid technical foundation for the Codes for Architecture Construction later issued by the Ministry of Works in the Qing Dynasty.

建筑模數(shù)制度化

Institutionalized Construction Module

“斗口有頭等材、二等材，以至十一等材之分。”

"Doukou, the mortise of cap block, has eleven grades."

雍正十二年（公元1734年），清代官方頒布清工部《工程做法則例》，在宋“材份制”的基礎(chǔ)上，進一步完善建筑模數(shù)，形成“斗口制”。“斗口制”以斗口為建筑設(shè)計的基本單位，將建材劃分為11等，5分為等差，級數(shù)劃一，工匠只要按此用材標準，就能準確地把握建筑的尺度，利于計算和施工，建筑模數(shù)制度化基本成型。

In 1734, the government issued Codes for Architecture Construction. The construction module of Doukou system was developed basing on the grading system in the Song Dynasty, in which the cross section size of the material used in the bucket arch or square was one piece of material. In Doukou system, Doukou was the unit of architectural design. The building materials were divided into 11 grades with an equal diあerence of 0.5 Fen (unit of measurement at that time). According to the standard, craftsmen estimated the precise scale of the building, and better conduct calculation and construction. Thus, the system of construction module was basically shaped.

建筑制圖樣式化

Stylized Architectural Graphing

明清建筑的另一個標志性突破，就是制圖標準體系的建立和完善，相關(guān)圖幅尺寸、規(guī)格等標準要求，甚至達到了當代水準。

Another breakthrough of buildings in the Ming and Qing dynasties is establishment and improvement of architectural graphing system. The map format and

other specif i cations even meet the modern standards.例如清工部《工程做法則例》中采用正投影畫法，描繪各式木構(gòu)架的橫剖面圖，能夠清晰反映建筑側(cè)立面和內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)，并注明比例尺度。通過條例規(guī)程與范例相結(jié)合的方法，逐款對照，能夠為建筑施工操作提供標準化保障，彰顯了傳統(tǒng)建筑營造技術(shù)的幾何化、秩序化特征和標準審美。

For example, the Codes for Architecture Construction by the Ministry of Works in the Qing Dynasty adopted orthographic projection graphing methods to depict the horizontal section plans of various wooden structures, which could clearly show the side elevation and internal structure of a building, whilst a proportional scale was marked. With a combination of rules and examples, the architecture construction was guaranteed with standards, which reflected the geometrical and regularized features and standard aesthetics of traditional architecture construction techniques.

結(jié) 語

Conclusion

無論是質(zhì)樸大氣的秦漢建筑，氣勢恢宏的唐宋建筑，還是博采眾長的明清建筑，無一例外都是在建筑標準體系不斷突破和完善的助推下，得到了長足的發(fā)展。在這一視角下，一部中國古典建筑史也是中國標準化史的一段精彩縮影和完美詮釋。

Driven by the continuous development and improvement of the architectural standard system, the simple and grand architectures in the Qin and Han Dynasties,the magnificent architectures in the Tang and Song Dynasties and the architectures in the Ming and Qing Dynasties absorbing the essences of others,they all had obtained a well development. From this prospective, the Chinese classical architectural history is also a brilliant epitome and perfect explanation of the Chinese standardization history.