趙祥梅 戴盛明
?
Toll樣受體4與結直腸癌的相關性
趙祥梅戴盛明
[摘要]Toll樣受體4(toll?like receptor 4,TLR4)在炎癥誘發的結直腸癌(colorectal cancer,CRC)中的作用日益受到關注?;罨腡LR4通過髓樣分化因子88(myeloid differentiation factor 88,MyD88)激活核轉錄因子?κB(nuclear factor?κB,NF?κB)產生大量炎癥介質并募集炎癥細胞形成腫瘤微環境,從而成為炎癥與腫瘤的紐帶貫穿于CRC發生、發展的整個過程中。本文著重對TLR4信號通路參與CRC的起始、進展、轉移、遺傳變異和表觀遺傳調控進行了討論。尤其,文章中強調了TLR4在CRC發展和發病機制中的角色,并提出調節TLR4信號通路可能為CRC的治療帶來新的前景。
[關鍵詞]Toll樣受體4;結直腸癌;發生;發展
作者單位:廣西醫科大學第四附屬醫院醫學檢驗科,柳州市腫瘤疾病與防治重點實驗室,廣西,柳州545005
眾所周知,Toll樣受體(toll like receptor,TLRs)是重要的細胞表面受體家族,參與機體對外源性生物的識別和免疫應答,且與腫瘤的發生、浸潤和轉移密切相關。研究證實,它屬于模式識別受體(pattern recognition receptors,PRRs),可識別病原相關分子模式(pathogen associated molecule pattern,PAMPs),進而引發一系列的信號轉導[1]。Toll樣受體4(toll?like receptor?4,TLR4)是TLRs家族成員之一,近年來發現,慢性炎癥在炎癥誘發的結直腸癌(colorectal cancer,CRC)的發展中扮演重要角色,而TLR4介導炎癥與CRC的生物學行為密切相關,成為近年來的研究熱點之一。本文將對TLR4信號通路參與CRC的起始、進展、轉移、遺傳變異和表觀遺傳調控等進行討論。
TLR4是一種單次跨膜蛋白,由胞外區、跨膜區和胞內區3部分構成,胞外區由22個富含亮氨酸重復序列組成馬蹄形結構域,跨膜區由21個氨基酸螺旋連接而成,胞內區是由200個氨基酸組成的包含一個Toll/IL?1受體(Toll/IL?1 receptor,TIR)結構域的保守區。TLR4識別相應病原體PAMPs及其內源性配體后,通過與胞漿內不同受體接頭蛋白結合進行信號轉導,根據接頭蛋白的不同可分為髓系分化蛋白(myeloid differentiation factor 88,MyD88)依賴性和非MyD88依賴性途徑[2]。在炎癥誘發的CRC中糖蛋白CD14轉運細菌脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)與TLR4和髓樣分化蛋白?2(myeloid differential protein?2,MD?2)形成多聚體細菌脂多糖/Toll樣受體4/髓樣分化蛋白?2 (lipopolysaccharide/toll?like receptor?4/myeloid dif?ferentiation factor 88,LPS/TLR4/MD?2)[3],使活化的TLR4胞內區通過與MyD88適配樣蛋白(myD88 adaptor?like,Mal)和MyD88各自結構域相互作用并導致其自身磷酸化,產生一系列級聯反應最終使核轉錄因子?κB(nuclear factor?κB,NF ?κB)激活釋放并轉移至細胞核內,然后與其特異性結合位點結合,啟動相關基因轉錄和翻譯,導致大量的細胞因子和炎癥介質釋放,如白介素?6 (interleukin?6,IL?6)、環氧化酶?2(cyclooxygenase?2,COX?2)等[4?7]。TLR4的獨特結構使得其在炎癥相關的各信號通路中發揮了重要的作用,成為腫瘤治療的又一關鍵分子。
在腫瘤組織中,腫瘤的發生是一個循序漸進的慢性過程,從青少年息肉、錯構瘤、腺瘤到腺癌組織中,TLR4的表達水平隨著疾病的進展而明顯增高,并且腺癌組織中TLR4的表達呈彌漫性或顆粒性分布,定位在細胞膜或細胞質中[8]。癌組織中TLR4表達明顯高于癌旁組織,TLR4通過參與腫瘤免疫逃逸、凋亡抵抗、誘導免疫抑制因子和趨化因子的表達而誘導CRC肝轉移及腹膜轉移。CRC的發生率與TLR4的表達水平呈正相關,且隨著TLR4表達水平的增高,其分期越晚;當TLR4/ MyD88共同高表達時則患者5年無病生存時間(disease?free survival,DFS)和總體生存時間(over?all survival,OS)明顯縮短[9]。對腫瘤微環境研究發現,結腸癌細胞中表達TLR4及氮氧化物酶(nox enzymes,Nox),進一步形成細菌脂多糖?氮氧化物酶1(lipopolysaccharide?Nox enzymes1,LPS?Nox1)氧化還原信號軸,從而促進結腸癌的遠處轉移[10]。且由大量的上皮細胞、基質細胞(如成纖維細胞)、內皮細胞和浸潤的炎癥細胞等構成的腫瘤微環境中,各種細胞TLR4的表達水平與CRC的分化、分期、化療后復發率及生存期密切相關[11-14]。相應地,在癌前病變?腺瘤?結腸癌發展過程中腸上皮細胞TLR4表達水平逐漸升高[15],組成性激活上皮細胞中TLR4,促進了炎癥介質環氧化酶?2(cyclooxygenase?2,COX2)及前列腺素E?2 (prostaglandin E2,PGE2)的表達及中性粒細胞的浸潤,從而促進CRC的形成[16],且分期越晚則腸上皮細胞中TLR4表達水平越高[13]。同時基質成纖維細胞中TLR4的表達與患者腫瘤高復發率及短的生存時間明顯相關,是CRC的一個獨立預后因素[12]。Cammarota等[14]研究也發現內皮細胞及炎性細胞(巨噬細胞)TLR4表達增加的趨勢與腫瘤進展相一致,尤其是腺瘤和腺癌中TLR4的表達明顯高于健康組織中。腫瘤組織細胞及微環境2大水平均證實了TLR4的高表達,說明TLR4的表達與腫瘤的發生密切相關。
3.1TLR4基因突變與CRC的發生
TLR4基因位于第9號染色體(9q32?q33),TLR4基因的突變與對LPS的反應具有明顯差別,如在蛋白水平Asp299Gly多態性(D299G)和Thr399Ile多態性(T399I)影響TLR4蛋白細胞外結構[17]。TLR4基因突變改變了腸黏膜先天性免疫細胞和腸上皮TLR4分子結構,使機體的免疫系統失去正常處理腸腔內大量細菌產物如LPS等的能力,持續激活下游信號通路,進而使腸黏膜在其長期刺激下產生感染、炎癥、過敏、易激乃至癌變[18],或TLR4基因突變間接或直接地調節內源性幾丁質酶1(chitinase 3?like 1,CHI3L1)等表達,從而導致組織重構、血管生成和腫瘤進展[19]。譬如TLR3 rs11721827與直腸癌發生相關,TLR3 rs3775292和TLR4 rs11536898與結腸癌發生相關,且在TLR2 和TLR4中多個SNPs與結腸癌的生存期相關[20],說明TLR4基因突變與CRC的發生密切相關,其突變增加了CRC發生的可能性。
3.2TLR4基因多態性與罹患CRC風險性
在最近十年,深入研究SNP對腫瘤風險的影響成為了研究熱點。不同種族之間TLR4的不同基因位點對CRC的影響不同,在俄羅斯人群中IL1B_1473G/C和TLR4_896A/G SNPs與直腸癌的發生密切相關[21],在高加索人群中純合型的TLR2+597CC使CRC風險降低5倍,純合型TLR4 299Gly則增加了3倍發生CRC的風險,且研究顯示純合型TLR4 299Gly在超重個體中發生CRC的風險更高[22]。此外,TLR4基因多態性不僅與CRC發生風險相關,而且與CRC的惡性程度也密切相關[20]。在突尼斯人群中TLR4 Asp299Gly(D299G)和Thr399Ile(T399I)與CRC分化程度、臨床分期、淋巴結轉移呈正相關[23]。然而最近國內研究顯示TLR4基因中Asp299Gly多態性的等位點G顯著增加了罹患胃癌的風險,并未發現其與總體消化道腫瘤以及CRC的發生有明顯的相關性,并且Thr399Ile的多態性等位點T與總體的消化道腫瘤及胃癌、CRC未見明顯相關性[24]。可見TLR4受種族、基因位點等諸多因素的影響,還需要更多的研究數據來明確其與CRC的關系。
流行病學資料表明慢性炎癥是發生CRC的一個危險因素,患慢性炎癥性腸病如潰瘍性結腸炎(ulcerative colitis,UC)、克羅恩病通常與CRC發病率增長有關,超出20%的UC患者發展成CRC[25-26]。在炎癥誘導的CRC組織中促炎介質白介素?8(interleukin?8,IL?8)、腫瘤壞死因子?α (tumor necrosis factor?α,TNF?α)、C反應蛋白(C?reactive protein,CRP)等明顯升高,抑炎介質白介素?4(interleukin?4,IL?4)、白介素?10(interleukin?10,IL?10)水平則明顯降低[25-26]。越來越多的證據支持促炎介質COX?2、PGE2、IL?6、CXC趨化因子受體2(CXC chemokine receptor 2,CXCR2)、活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)等在CRC的發病機制中起著關鍵作用[27-31]。研究發現NF?κB/IL?6信號通路對CRC的發展起到橋梁作用,并且貫穿于CRC的啟動、促進和發展整個時期[27]。在CRC中COX2來源的PGE2通過沉默某些腫瘤抑癌基因或DNA修復基因促進腫瘤的生長[31];CXCR2通過募集骨髓來源的抑制細胞到腫瘤微環境中,從而加速結腸炎癥和CRC的發生[28]。炎癥浸潤產生的ROS促進結腸上皮的增生[29]。有趣的是TLR4在人類或小鼠CRC中過表達,活化的TLR4信號通路促進大量炎性介質的產生,相應地TLR4基因敲除(toll? like receptor?4 gene knockout,TLR4?/?)小鼠阻止了CRC的發生[30]。在炎癥恢復期給予TLR4?/?小鼠補充PGE2促進了CRC的發生,其機制為補充PGE2重新誘導粘膜雙調蛋白(amphiregulin,AR)、COX?2的表達和表皮生長因子受體(epidermal growth fac?tor receptor,EGFR)的激活[31]。此外,TLR4,MD?2 和CXC趨化因子受體7(chemotaxis chemokine re?ceptor 7,CXCR7)明顯高于正常組織,且與CRC的腫瘤大小、淋巴結轉移和遠處轉移密切相關[3]:暴露于LPS的CRC細胞株中,CXCR7表達明顯升高,TLR4、MD?2及CXCR7共表達促進了癌細胞株的增殖和遷移。最近發現通過TLR4/PI3K相互作用腫瘤來源的透明質酸(hyaluronan,HA)啟動中性粒細胞的激活,激活的中性細胞主要集中在癌旁基質和癌巢中,并通過接觸依賴機制上調惡性細胞的轉移潛能,產生TNF?α,IL?1β等炎性介質,最終促進CRC的發生和疾病的進展[32]。以上結果表明了TLR4通過多條炎癥調節軸反復產生大量炎性因子和炎性介質,進而促進了CRC的發生、發展。
循環腫瘤細胞(circulating tumor cells,CTCs)是腫瘤遠處轉移的關鍵因素,一個相對高數量的CTCs與疾病的進展和預后不良密切相關。自然殺傷(natural killer cells,NK)細胞中TLR4表達強度明顯下降,導致NK細胞識別腫瘤特異性抗原的能力下降,從而導致CTCs細胞免疫逃逸而發生遠處遷移[33]。然而CTCs粘附是CRC轉移級聯步驟中關鍵的一步,TLR4信號通過MyD88通路激活NF?κB,激活的NF?κB導致ROS釋放[10],ROS進一步調節Wnt/β?catenin轉移信號通路[15],促進CRC細胞粘附,增加了成功轉移的風險。
研究表明LPS/TLR4/NF?κB信號通路的激活釋放大量的炎癥因子及炎癥介質,促進CRC的發生和轉移[2,4-5]。因此,將TLR4信號通路作為CRC的防治和藥物開發成為了研究重點。最近國內體外試驗發現富士山蘋果酸(modified Fuji apple polysaccharide,MAP)競爭性抑制LPS與TLR4的作用,從而抑制了LPS誘導的NF?κB的表達及COX2、基質金屬蛋白酶9(matrix metallopeptidase 9,MMP9)、基質金屬蛋白酶2(matrix metallopepti?dase 2,MMP2)、誘生型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase,iNOS)及PGE2等炎癥物質的表達,并且促進了細胞質中NF?κB p65和κB抑制因子(inhibitor of κB,IκB)的表達[34]。同樣國外Panaro等[35]研究發現植物萃取物白藜蘆醇競爭性抑制LPS與TLR4的作用,進一步抑制IκB的下調和NF?κB的激活,從而抑制LPS誘導IL?1β、TNF?α促炎介質和COX?2、iNOS等促炎氧化酶激活物的產生。這些研究均不同程度抑制了LPS/TLR4/NF?κB信號轉導通路所致的炎癥反應,從而抑制了CRC的增殖和轉移。而在APC(Min/+)小鼠模型中通過組成性激活上皮細胞中的TLR4的研究中,結果導致CRC腫瘤負荷明顯降低,并且Cox?2蛋白明顯減少,干擾素?β(interferon β,IFN?β)表達增加,Caspase?3活性明顯增強[36]。由此可見,TLR4作為一個復雜的信號網絡,其與CRC的發生、發展密切相關。而預防和治療CRC有待于其機制的進一步研究。
TLR4受體不僅在炎性腸炎到CRC的演變過程中表達明顯升高,而且其表達水平、基因多態性影響了CRC的分級、分期及預后。TLR4受體通過LPS/TLR4/MD?2/Mal/MyD88通路啟動NF?κB誘導的炎癥反應,從而影響CRC的發生、發展。調節TLR4信號通路可抑制CRC的增殖和轉移?;赥LR4的表達水平與CRC的發生、發展密切相關,是否可將TLR4的表達水平作為動態監測指標有待于研究。由于TLR4的基因多肽性具有種族特異性,可進一步對我國患者TLR4基因型進行測序以明確其高?;蛭稽c,從而達到對CRC進行早期干預和預防作用。盡管TLR4在CRC中扮演的角色研究已取得了一些成果,但是TLR4作為一個錯綜復雜的信號通路中的一個重要分子,其分子機制和干預治療需要進一步的研究。建立理想的結直腸炎相關的CRC動物模型,深入探索和早期干預TLR4信號通路,可以為CRC的預防或治療提供新的策略。
參考文獻
[1]Kigerl KA,de Rivero VJP,Dietrich WD,et al. Pat?tern recognition receptors and central nervous system re?pair[J]. Exp Neurol,2014,258(1):5-16.
[2]P?óciennikowska A,Hromada?Judycka A,Borz cka K,et al. Co?operation of TLR4 and raft proteins in LPS? induced pro?inflammatory signaling[J]. Cell Mol Life Sci,2015,72(3):557-581.
[3]Xu H,Wu Q,Dang S,et al. Alteration of CXCR7 ex?pression mediated by TLR4 promotes tumor cell prolif?eration and migration in human colorectal carcinoma [J]. Plos One,2011,6(12):e27399.
[4]Aviello G,Corr SC,Johnston DG,et al. MyD88 adap?tor?like(Mal)regulates intestinal homeostasis and coli?tis?associated colorectal cancer in mice[J]. Am J Physi?ol Gastrointest Liver Physiol,2014,306(9):769-778.
[5]Kopp E,Medzhitov R. Recognition of microbial infec?tion by Toll like receptors[J]. Curr Opin Immunol,2003,15(4):396-401.
[6]Oblak A,Jerala R. Toll?like receptor 4 activation in cancer progression and therapy[J]. Clinical & Develop?mental Immunology,2011,18(1):184-186.
[7]Aviello G,Corr SC,Johnston DG,et al. MyD88 adap?tor?like(Mal)regulates intestinal homeostasis and coli?tis?associated colorectal cancer in mice[J]. Am J Physi?ol Gastrointest Liver Physiol,2014,306(9):769-778.
[8]Zhang D,Li YH,Mi M,et al. Modified apple polysac?charides suppress the migration and invasion of colorec?tal cancer cells induced by lipopolysaccharide[J]. Nutr Res,2013,33(10):839-848.
[9]Wang EL,Qian ZR,Nakasono M,et al. High expres?sion of Toll?like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation fac?tor 88 signals correlates with poor prognosis in colorec?tal cancer[J]. Br J Cancer,2010,102(5):908-915.
[10]O′Leary DP,Bhatt L,Woolley JF,et al. TLR?4 sig?nalling accelerates colon cancer cell adhesion via NF?κB mediated transcriptional up?regulation of Nox?1[J]. Plos One,2012,7(10):e44176.
[11]Santos MF,Mannam VK,Craft BS,et al. Compara?tive analysis of innate immune system function in meta?static breast,colorectal,and prostate cancer patients with circulating tumor cells[J]. Exp Mol Pathol,2014,96(3):367-374.
[12]Eiró N,González L,González LO,et al. Toll?like re?ceptor?4 expression by stromal fibroblasts is associated with poor prognosis in colorectal cancer[J]. J Immuno?ther,2013,36(6):342-349.
[13]Sussman DA,Santaolalla R,Bejarano PA,et al. In silico and ex vivo approaches identify a role for toll?like receptor 4 in colorectal cancer[J]. J Exp Clin Cancer Res,2014,33(3):45-57.
[14]Cammarota R,Bertolini V,Pennesi G,et al. The tu?mor microenvironment of colorectal cancer:stromalTLR?4 expression as a potential prognostic marker[J]. J Transl Med,2010,8(1):112.
[15]Santaolalla R,Sussman DA,Ruiz JR,et al. TLR4 acti?vates the β?catenin pathway to cause intestinal neoplasia [J]. Plos One,2013,8(5):e63298.
[16]Fukata M,Shang L,Santaolalla R,et al. Constitutive activation of epithelial TLR4 augments inflammatory re?sponses to mucosal injury and drives colitis?associated tumorigenesis[J]. Inflamm Bowel Dis,2011,17(7):1464-1473.
[17]Ferwerda B,McCall MB,Verheijen K,et al. Function?al consequences of toll?like receptor 4 polymorphisms [J]. Mol Med,2008,14(6):346-352.
[18]Eyking A,Ey B,Rünzi M,et al. Toll?like receptor 4 variant D299G induces features of neoplastic progres?sion in Caco?2 intestinal cells and is associated with ad?vanced human colon cancer[J]. Gastroenterology,2011,141(6):2154-2165.
[19]Kamba A,Lee IA,Mizoguchi E. Potential association between TLR4 and chitinase 3?like 1(CHI3L1/YKL?40)signaling on colonic epithelial cells in inflammato?ry bowel disease and colitis?associated cancer[J]. Curr Mol Med,2013,13(7):1110-1121.
[20]Slattery ML,Herrick JS,Bondurant KL,et al. Toll?like receptor genes and their association with colon and rectal cancer development and prognosis[J]. Int J Can?cer,2012,130(12):2974-2980.
[21]Kutikhin AG,Yuzhalin AE,Volkov AN,et al. Corre?lation between genetic polymorphisms within IL?1β and TLR4 genes and cancer risk in a Russian population:a case?control study[J]. Tumor Biol,2014,35(5):4821-4830.
[22]Pimentel?Nunes P,Teixeira AL,Pereira C,et al. Func?tional polymorphisms of toll?like receptors 2 and 4 alter the risk for colorectal carcinoma in Europeans[J]. Dig Liver Dis,2013,45(1):63-69.
[23]Omrane I,Baroudi O,Kourda N,et al. Positive link between variant toll?like receptor 4(Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile)and colorectal cancer patients with ad?vanced stage and lymph node metastasis[J]. Tumor Bi?ol,2014,35(1):545-551.
[24]Zhao X,Kang S,Liu L,et al. Correlation of Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile polymorphisms in toll?like re?ceptor 4 gene with digestive cancer risk:a meta?analy?sis[J]. Biomedical Reports,2013,1(2):294-302.
[25]Strus M,Gosiewski T,Fyderek K,et al. A role of hy? drogen peroxide producing commensal bacteria present in colon of adolescents with inflammatorybowel disease in perpetuation of the inflammatory process[J]. J Physi?ol Pharmacol,2009,60(6):49-54.
[26]Basavaraju U,Shebl FM,Palmer AJ,et al. Cytokine gene polymorphisdms,cytokine levels and the risk of colorectal neoplasia in a screened population of North?east Scotland[J]. Eur J Cancer Prev,2010,59(1):44-45.
[27]Yang H,Qi H,Ren J,et al. Involvement of NF?κB/IL?6 pathway in the processing of colorectal carcinogenesis in colitis mice[J]. Int J Inflam,2014,13(9):81-88.
[28]Dubois RN. Role of inflammation and inflammatory me?diators in colorectal cancer[J]. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc,2014,125(1):358-372.
[29]Rogler G. Chronic ulcerative colitis and colorectal can?cer[J]. Cancer Lett,2014,345(2):235-241.
[30]Fukata M,Chen A,Vamadevan AS,et al. Toll?like re?ceptor?4 promotes the development of colitis?associated colorectal tumors[J]. Gastroenterology,2007,133 (6):1869-1881.
[31]Hernandez Y,Sotolongo J,Breglio K,et al. The role of prostaglandin E2(PGE 2)in toll?like receptor 4 (TLR4)?mediated colitis?associated neoplasia[J]. BMC Gastroenterol,2010,10(4):82.
[32]Wu Y,Zhao Q,Peng C,et al. Neutrophils promote motility of cancer cells via a hyaluronan?mediated TLR4/PI3K activation loop[J]. J Pathol,2011,225 (3):438-447.
[33]Martinez J,Huang X,Yang Y. Direct TLR2 signaling is critical for NK cell activation and function in re?sponse to vaccinia viral infection[J]. Plos Pathog,2010,6(3):1005-1007.
[34]Zhang D,Li YH,Mi M,et al. Modified apple polysac?charides suppress the migration and invasion of colorec?tal cancer cells induced by lipopolysaccharide[J]. Nutr Res,2013,33(10):839-848.
[35]Panaro MA,Carofiglio V,Acquafredda A,et al. Anti?inflammatory effects of resveratrol occur via inhibition of lipopolysaccharide?induced NF?κ B activation in Ca?co?2 and SW480 human colon cancer cells[J]. Br J Nu?tr,2012,108(9):1623-1632.
[36]Li Y,Teo WL,Low MJ,et al. Constitutive TLR4 sig?nalling in intestinal epithelium reduces tumor load by in?creasing apoptosis in APC(Min/+)mice[J]. Onco?gene,2014,33(3):369-377.
綜述
The relationship of toll?like receptor 4 and colorectal cancer
ZHAO Xiangmei,DAI Shengming
(Liuzhou Key Laboratory of Tumor Diseases and Prevention,Clinical Laboratory,Fourth Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University,Liuzhou,Guangxi,China,545005)
[ABSTRACT]The purpose of this article is to study the role that toll?like receptor 4 (TLR4) plays in colitis associated colorecal cancer (CRC). The activated TLR4 activates nuclear factor?κB (NF?κB) by myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88), which produces inflammatory mediators and recruits inflammatory cells to form the tumor microenvironment. TLR4 becomes a link between inflammation and cancer throughout the whole process of the occurrence and development of CRC. In this paper, a comprehensive review on the involvement of the TLR4 pathway in the initiation, progression, metastasis,inherited genetic variation, and epigenetic regulation of CRC will be discussed. In particular,the physiological role of TLR4 in the development and pathogenesis of CRC, and promising approaches for the therapy of CRC by TLR4 will be proposed.
[KEY WORDS]Toll?like receptor 4(TLR4);Colorectal cancer;Occurrence;Development
基金項目:國家自然科學基金(81160269)
通訊作者:戴盛明,E?mail:Daishm@sina.com