基于4680圓柱電芯的浸沒和冷板式電池包冷卻仿真與熱失控實驗研究(英文)

【Abstract】This studyfocuses onthe thermal managementof 468O-type cylindrical lithium-ion baterypacks utilizing NCM811 chemistry.It establishes coupled multi-physics models forboth immersionand serpentinecold platecoolingsystems. Throughacombinationof numerical simulationand experimentalvalidation，the technicaladvantagesand mechanismsof immersioncolingaresystematicallexplored.Simulationresultsindicatethatundera3Cfast-chargingcondition （inlet temperature 20 ，flow rate 36 L/min），the immersion cooling structure 3demonstrates a triple enhancement in thermal performancecompared tothecold plate structure1：a13.06%reduction inpeak temperature，a31.67%decreaseinoveral maximum temperature difference，and a 47.62 % decrease in single-cell temperature deviation，while also reducing flow resistance by 33.61 % .Furthermore，based on the immersion coling model，a small battry module comprising seven cylindrical cells was designedforthermalrunaway testing vianailpenetration.Theresultsshowthatthepeak temperatureofthetriggered cell was limited to 437.6 °C ，with acontrollable temperature rise gradient of only 3.35℃/s and a rapid cooling rate of 0.6 ℃/s. The maximum temperature rise of adjacent cells was just 64.8 ，effectivelyinhibiting thermal propagation.Post-test disassembly revealed that the non-triggered cells retained gt; 99.2% of their original voltage and S 99% structural integrity， confirming the module'sability to achieve“localized failure with global stability.\"

Keywords：Immersioncooling，468o battery，Thermal runaway，Numerical simulation

【摘要】針對NCM811體系4680圓柱電池包構建浸沒式與蛇形冷板式熱管理系統的多物理場耦合模型，通過數值仿真與試驗驗證相結合的方法表明：在3C快充工況下，浸沒式結構3相較冷板結構1實現整包溫度特性三重優化，峰值溫度降低 13.06% ，全域最大溫差下降 31.67% ，單電芯溫差銳減 47.62% ，流阻降低 33.61% 。同時，根據浸沒式冷卻模型，設計了7個圓柱電池的小型電池包，并進行針刺熱失控試驗，結果表明：觸發電芯在浸沒冷卻時峰值溫度抑制至 且呈現可控溫升梯度僅 3.35^°C/s 與快速冷卻特性 0.6^°C/s ，相鄰電芯最大溫升僅 64.8^°C ，成功阻斷熱蔓延路徑。拆解驗證顯示：非觸發單元電壓保持率 gt;99.2% ，結構完整度 599% ，證實模組具備“局部失效-全局穩定\"的安全容錯能力。

主題詞：浸沒式冷卻4680電芯 熱失控 數值模擬

中圖分類號：TM912 文獻標志碼：A DOI：10.19620/j.cnki.1000-3703.20250563

【引用格式】萬福來，趙慶良，羅毅韜，等.基于4680圓柱電芯的浸沒和冷板式電池包冷卻仿真與熱失控實驗研究（英文）[J].汽 車技術，2025（10）：10-20. WANFL，ZHAOQL，LUOYT，etal.Simulation and Thermal RunawayExperiment Studyon Immersionand Cold Plate Coolingwith 4680Cylindrical BatteryPack[J].Automobile Technology，2025（1O）：10-20.

1 Introduction

During charge-discharge cycles，cylindrical lithium-ion batteries generate heat from several internal mechanisms， including reversible electrochemical reactions，electrolyte decomposition，internal resistance，andpolarization

processesll. When the heat dissipation rate of a lithium-ion battery is lower than its own heat generation rate，it will lead to heat accumulation and a rise in the battery's temperature. Thismay affect the normal operation and service life of the lithium-ion batteryl2}; in severe cases，it can cause thermal runaway and even trigger fires.Thus，Effective thermal managementsystemsareessential for thereliable application of cylindrical batteriesin EVs. Previous researches have explored thermal management for smallformat cylindrical batteries，employing both air and liquid cooling methods.Mahamudl3] designed a reciprocating airflow system for cylindrical batteries with a 42.4mm diameterand97.7mmheight.The2Dnumericalanalysis demonstrated that reciprocating flow achieved superior cooling compared to unidirectional flow.Cao ^14] studied liquid cooling for 1865O cell，the cell refers to a single battery，the 1865O means that the diameter ofcell is18 mm and the height is 65.O mm，the study showing that coolant flowrate and charge-dischargerates significantlyaffect thermal performance.Morali[5] investigated 2665O cell thermalbehavior，identifyingdischargerate，heattransfer coefficient，and ambient temperature as key influencing factors.Roth ¹⁶¹ analyzed thermal abuse scenarios for 18650 cell，highlighting primary causes and severity levels of thermalrunaway.Wang Xiaomeng[7]examinedheat generation sources under varying operating conditions in 4680 cell using coupled electrochemical-thermal modeling. Despite these studies，researches on immersion cooling of 4680 large cylindrical batteries remains limited. Moreover， withthe fast-paced advancement offast-charging technologyandcorrespondingthermalchallenges， conventional cooling systems struggle to maintain safe operating temperatures forlarge cylindrical cells.

This study addresses this gap by investigating an actual 828-cell 4680 cylindrical battery pack，designing andcomparing cold plate and immersion cooling configurations. The immersion system utilizes Shell’s high-safety，thermallystable dielectric fluid“Thermal Fluid\".A series of 3C fast-charging simulations （SOC 10%～90 % ）assess thermal characteristics under both configurations.Additionally，thermal performance under varying structures is evaluated，and thermal runaway experiments areconductedona small modulewith 7-cell tovalidate the immersion system’sthermal control and safetyperformance. Thefindingsprovidevaluable guidance for the design and development of high-energydensitycylindricalbatterypacksforEVs.

2 Model Development

2.1HeatGenerationModel for CylindricalCells

Based on the configuration of an actual vehicle battery pack，the system comprises 828 cylindrical 468O lithiumion cells arranged. It is assumed that heat is uniformly generated within each cell8]，and the materialsare isotropic.Theinternalheatconductionwithinacylindrical cell is governed by the Fourier heat conduction differential equation[9：

Where ρ is the cell density， C_p is the specific heat capacity， the x ， y and z are the coordinate axes， T is temperature，t is time， λ is thermal conductivities，and φ is the volumetric heat generation rate.

2.2GoverningEquationsforFluidFlow

The coolant in the battery pack is modeled asan incompressible fluid.The fluid dynamics are described by theReynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes（RANS） equations， incorporating continuity，momentum，and energy equations as follows[10]：

Continuity equation：

Where u ， v ， w are the velocity components in the x ， y ， z directionsrespectively.

Momentum equations：

Where μ isthe coefficient of kinetic viscosity， P is the pressure， ∨ is the divergence， S_u，S_v and S_w are constants.

Energy equation：

Where E is the total energy， h is the enthalpy， h_j is the component of enthalpy， J isthe diffusion flux， k_eff is the heat conductivity，and S_h is the volumetric heat source， J_j 1 the component of diffusion flux， τ_eff isthe viscous stress tensor.

Turbulence is modeled using k-ε equations：

Where σ isthe Prandtl number of turbulent fluctuation kineticenergy， k isthe turbulencekinetic energy， ε isthe turbulence kinetic energy， μ_x is the component of kinetic viscositycoefficient， σ_k isthe component of Prandtl number， G_k and G_b are the production term of turbulent kinetic energy caused by mean velocity gradient and buoyancy， Y_M and S_k is constant.

2.3 Geometry Model

Each468Ocylindricalcellhasadiameter of48 mmand a height of 80mm .The full pack includes 828 cells. Geometry optimizations considered design features such as inlet/outlet positions，flow diverter openings，and baffle arrangements. The selected immersion cooling geometry consistsofacasing，topcover，cylindricalcells，inlet/outlet baffles，and 3 perforated diverter plates，ensuring even fluid distribution around each cell，asshowninFigure1.

（a）4680 Cylindrical Battery

The 4680 cells use NCM811 cathode and graphite anode materials.Keyparameters include：rated capacityof 26.5A·h，nominal voltage of 3.7V ，densityof 2841.5kg/m³ specific heat capacity of 1100J/（kg?K）^[11] ，radial thermal conductivity of 0.2W/（m?K） ，and axial thermal conductivityof 32W/（m?K）

Figure1 Geometry Model

2.5 GridModelandGridIndependenceVerification

Themesh model oftheimmersion-cooledbatterypackfor 4680 cylindrical batteries isa polyhedral mesh model with good adaptability.The minimum grid size isset to 0.5mm and the standard cell size to 4 mm.Mesh refinementisappliedto regionsaround flow divertersand narrow cell gaps，mesh of immersion battery packis shown in Figure 2. Five mesh configurationsare evaluated for pressure drop sensitivity，confirming grid independencewhen the variation inpressure drop remainedbelow 5%.A mesh with 33.57 millionelements isselected for subsequent simulations.The relationship between pressure drop of battery pack and mesh number is shown in Figure 3.

2.4Physical Propertiesof 4680 Cells

Figure2Mesh ofImmersionBatteryPack

Figure3Grid Independence Verification

2.6Boundary Conditions

Simulation boundary conditions included an ambient temperature of 25^°C ，aninlet flow velocity corresponding to 36 L/min at 20‰ ，and a pressure outlet set to atmospheric pressure.The pack casing was modeled with natural convection boundary conditions，heat transfer coefficient：3W/（m i²? K）.The internal resistance of 4680 cells was assumed to be 2.5mΩ ，yieldinga heatingpower of15Wper cell under 3C charging，the SOC range is 10% } 90%，and the duration is 960 s.

3Simulation Results

3.1 Cold Plate Cooling Simulation of the 4680 BatteryPack

The serpentine cold plate cooling system is a widely adopted thermal management strategyin current electric vehicleapplicationsand servesasa baselinefor comparison with the immersion cooling design.Based on thecold plateconfigurationusedin Tesla’sbatterypacks， a 3D model is constructed，featuring a housing， cover， 828 cylindrical cells，12 serpentine cold plates，and inlet/ outlet pipes，as shown in Figure 4.The cooling fluid enters through the inlet pipe，flows through the cold platesthatare in contact withthe sides of the cells，and exitsto an external refrigeration system via the outlet pipe.The coolant isa 5O% water-ethylene glycol solution with a density of 1075kg/m³ ，specific heat capacity of 3251 J/（kg·K），thermal conductivity ofO.375 W/（m·K）， and kinematic viscosity of 4.8 cSt at25 ΔC .The simulations were conducted under 3C charging conditions with a flow rateof 36L/minandaninlettemperatureof 20‰

Figure 4Cold Plate BatteryPack of Structure 1

UsingSTAR-CCM + software，the thermal distribution issimulated，temperature distribution ofbattery pack is shown in Figure 5.Results show a peak temperature of

.Cells near the inlet are cooler than those near the 2025年第10期

outlet. The contact between coldplates and cell sides causessignificantintra-cell temperaturegradients， reaching a maximum of 19.09 ^°C ．The maximum temperature difference across the entire pack is 23.18 ΔC witha mean temperature of 37.36 ^°C .Flow distribution of battery pack is shown in Figure 6，flow field analysis revealsatotalpressuredropof6.O4kPa.Velocityvaries among the cold plates，with those near the outlet exhibiting higherflow rates，indicatingan imbalance in coolant distribution.

Figure5TemperatureDistributionofBatteryPack

Figure6Flow Distribution of BatteryPack

3.2 Comparative AnalysisofDifferentCold Plate Structures

Toexplore the effects of structural design on flow distribution， two additional cold platelayoutsare simulated shown in Figure 7.Structure 2 introduced 4 branch pipelines connecting groups of 3 cold plates，improving flowuniformity.Structure3repositionsboththeinletand outlet to the same end and split each cold plate into upper and lower segments，creating a more compact assembly. Underidentical 3C conditions（20℃，36L/min），structure

3yields the lowestpeak and average temperatures，while Structure 2 shows the smallest intra-cell temperature difference.Pressure dropanalysis indicates that structure2 minimizes pump energy consumption.Overall， structure 1 and structure 3 are deemed more practical in real-world applications.The contrastive results are shown in Figure 8.

Figure7Cold Plate Structures

3.3 Immersion Cooling Simulation of the 4680 BatteryPack

Maintainingthesamesimulationparameters， the immersion cooling battery pack uses Shell’s highperformance dielectric fluid“Thermal Fluid”.At room temperature，this fluid has a densityof 805kg/m³ specific heatof 2200J/（kg?K） ，thermal conductivityof 0.143 W/（m·K），and kinematic viscosity of 22.4 cSt. The fluidentersthrough theinlet，flowsuniformlyaround each cell due to the diverter plate design，and exits via the outlet.Simulation results indicate a peak temperature of 39.47 ^°C ，10.O2% lower than the baseline cold plate system，as shown in Figure 9.The average temperature decreases by 10.76% to 33.34^°C. Intra-cell temperature differences drop by 46.10% to 10.29 ℃.The overall maximum temperaturedifference fallsby 19.41% to 18.68℃.Flow distribution of battery pack is shown in Figure 1O，the total pressure drop is only 4.01kPa a 33.61% reduction comparedto the cold plate design.Fluid velocityis highest near theinlet，with some non-uniformity in cooling effciency，yet the overall performance surpasses that of the cold plate system.

Figure8 Compared with theResultsofCold PlateStructures

Figure9TemperatureDistributionofBatteryPack

3.4Effect of FlowRate on Immersion Cooling

Simulationsareconducted atdifferent flowrates （20L/min and 48 L/min） to assess their impact on thermal performance，asshowninFigure11.Higher flowrateslead toimproved cooling and reduced temperature variation across the pack.However，increased flow also results in higher pressure drops and energy consumption.Given the inherently lower pressure drop in immersion systems， moderate increasesin flow rateare feasible and beneficial for enhancing heat transfer and temperature uniformity.

Figure10FlowDistribution of BatteryPack

Figure11Compared with the Results of Different Flows

3.5 Comparative Analysis of Immersion Cooling Structures

Tooptimize flow patterns，two alternative immersion

structures aredesigned，as shown in Figure 12.Structure 2 employs dual inletson either side anda central outlet， enhancing cooling path efficiency.Structure 3 removes diverter plates，relying on natural spacing between cells for coolant dispersion.This simplifiesthe designand reduces costs.Under the 36 L/min condition，structure3 outperformstheotherswitha 3.37%lowerpeak temperature than structure 1，and a 2.97% lower average temperature than structure 2.It also showsa 15.20% （20 reduction in overall temperature difference compared to structure 1. Although structure 2 achieves the lowest pressure drop，the performance of structure 3 is optimal whenconsidering cooling，cost，and simplicity.The contrastive results are shown in Figure13.

3.6Comparison of Immersion and Cold Plate CylindricalBatteryPacks

When comparing the best-performing designs from both systems，which are coldplate structure1 and immersion cooling structure 3.Immersion cooling structure 3 reduces thepack’speak temperature by13.06%，average temperatureby 10.89% ，andoverall temperature difference by 31.67% compared to the cold plate structure 1，as shown in Figure 14. The intra-cell temperature uniformity improvesby 47.62%.Thissuperiorrefrigerant performance isattributed to over 8O% surface contact between the coolant and each cell in the immersion system，compared toonly 15% inthecold plate configuration.These results validate thesignificantadvantagesofimmersioncoolingfor high-energy cylindrical battery packs.The cold plate pack iscomposedofanumberofserpentinecold plates，which hasa higher cost and a more complex structure.In summary，the contrastive results of two structuresare shownin Table1.

4 Thermal Runaway Experiment of 4680 BatteryModule

Toevaluate the safety and thermal control capabilitiesof immersion cooling during thermal runaway events，an experimental study is conducted using a mini battery modulecomposedof7468Ocylindricalcells.Given the constraints of experimental cost and space，the immersion cooling prototype is designed to hold only 2.1 Lof dielectric fluid，significantly less than the 2O～30 L typically used in full-size immersion packs，making the testconditions particularlystringent，asshown in Figure

15.The7cellsare arranged clockwise inside an aluminum housing，serially connected with nickel strips.They are supported by 3 layers of 2 mm-thick insulating boards simulatingreal-world battery module structural supports， and fixed to the base with bolts.Temperature and voltage sensors are affixed to each cell’s surface to monitor dynamic thermalandelectricalbehaviors.

Figure14 TemperatureComparisonBetween Immersionand CoolingPlateBatteryPacks

Table1 Comparison of Two CoolingMethods

Figure13Compared with the Results of Immersion Structures

Figure15BatteryModuleforExperiment

The thermal runaway test follows the Chinese regulations GB 38031—2020.Cell #4，located at the centerof thearray，isdesignatedasthe triggercell fornail penetration.The experimental apparatus includesa pressure sensor mounted on the top cover to monitor internal pressure buildup，and a reliefvalve for safe venting of gases during the runaway process，as shown in Figure 16.Wiring for sensors is routed through sealed openings packed with fireproof clay to prevent fluid and gasleakage.A5mm-diameter steel needle penetrates the center of cell #4’s positive terminal at a constant speed of （20號 1mm/s ，while the entire process is monitored via remote video surveillance.

Figure 16 Experiment Setup

Prior to testing，all cellsare charged to 4.2 Vand allowedto equilibrate at 4.1 V.After 221 sof needle insertion，a depthof15.4 mm isreached，triggering the opening of the relief valve and the expulsion of dielectric fluid.The internal pressurepeaksat 5O.4 kPa，and the temperature rise rate of cell #4 reached 1 C/sfor3 consecutive seconds， meeting the thermal runaway initiation criterion，as showninFigure17.11slater，white smoke is observed，and the cell's temperature rose rapidly witha peak rateof3℃/s.Thevoltage ofcell #4 drops to O V，confirming complete thermal runaway，as shown in Figure 18.As the event progresses， the temperature of cell #4 peaksat 437.6 ΔC and then begins to decline.This thermal suppression is attributedto the high specific heat and phase change absorption capacity of the dielectric fluid，which rapidly absorbs the heat and expelled the gasliquid mixture through the relief port. The rateof temperature increase duringthe runaway phase is limited to 3.35C/s，and the subsequent cooling phase showsa declinerateof O.6℃/s.Unlikein air-cooled modules， where heat lingers and can trigger propagation，the immersionsystemrapidly stabilized.

Figure17The beginning of Thermal Runaway

Figure18TheCompletingof ThermalRunaway

Temperature profiles shows that adjacent cells briefly detect thermal spikes due to transient exposure to the emitted hot gases but quicklyreturnsto stable levels，as shown in Figure 19.The maximum temperature rise among neighboring cells do not exceed 65 ℃，and no thermal propagation occurs.Within 6O spost-trigger，the temperature ofcell #4 drops to 408.7 within 300 s，it fallsto 262.6 ^°C ;within 60Os，it decreases to 153.4 °C ;andafter one hour，it returns to nearambient temperature （42.3 ℃）.

Voltage curves reveal that cell #4 experiences severe fluctuations duringtheeventduetointernal shortcircuits and electrolyte decomposition，asshown in Figure2O.The voltage of cell #4ultimately drops to zero，which proves that thermal runaway occurs.In contrast， the voltages of the 6 surrounding cells remain stable throughout and even 24hours after the experiment，with voltages retaining over 99.2% of their pre-test values，as shown in Figure 21. Disassembly confirms that only cell #4 isphysically damaged （severed terminal），while the remaining cellsare structurallyintactwithvisiblyundamagedprotectivefilm， maintaining over 99% integrity，The testing voltages of cells after experiment are shown in Figure 22.These results underscore the effectiveness of immersion cooling withShell’s“Thermal Fluid”inhaltingthermal propagation.The system successfully realized a full-chain mitigationstrategy：thermal runawayinitiation，heat absorption via phase change，and controlled venting.This demonstratesarobust fault-tolerantcapabilitythat supportssafeapplicationofhigh-energyNCM811 cylindrical batterypacks.

（c）TheSideand TopSurfaceTemperatureofcell#4

Figure19The TemperatureChangesofBatteries

Figure2OTheVoltageChangesofBatteries

Figure21TheBatteryStatusAfter ThermalRunaway

Figure 22The MeasurementVoltages After Experiment

5 Conclusions

Based on the structural design of an 828-cell 4680 cylindrical battery pack usingNCM811 lithium-ion chemistry，thisstudydevelops comprehensivesimulation models for both immersion and serpentine cold plate cooling systems.The thermal and hydraulicperformanceof both configurations iscompared through numerical simulationsunder3Cfast-chargingconditions. Additionally，a scaled-down experimental moduleis fabricated for thermal runaway testing to evaluate the safety performance of immersion cooling under extreme conditions.Key conclusions are as follows：

a.Underidentical simulationconditions，the immersion cooling system （Structure 3）outperforms the cold plate configuration with a 13.O6% reduction in peak temperature，a 1O.89% reduction in average temperature， a 31.67% reduction in overall temperaturevariation，and a 47.62% decrease in single-cell temperature differences.

b.Inthe thermal runawayexperiment，thedielectric fluid effectively absorbs and dissipates heat from the triggered cell. The maximum temperature is limited to 437.6℃，with a peak temperature rise rate of 3.35℃/s and acoolinggradientof O.6℃/s.Adjacentcellsremainsbelow 65℃ and did not exhibit signs of thermal propagation.

c.Post-experiment inspections confirms the integrity ofnon-triggered cells，with voltage retentionabove 99.2 % and structural completeness above 99%.These results affirm the fault-tolerant characteristics ofimmersion cooling，demonstrating its ability to isolate and suppress localized thermal events.

d.The thermal runaway of battery iscontrolled by immersioncooling，whichisattributedtothehighspecific heatand phase change absorption capacity of the dielectric fluid.During the phase change process， the dielectric fluid rapidlyabsorbsalotof heatand prevents heat spreading. Tofurther improve the cooling performance of immersion coolingsystem，thespecificheat ofand thermal conductivity of the dielectric fluid should beincreased by addition of special additives，which isan important researchdirection.

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修改稿收到日期為2025年8月19日。

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