REALISTIC INTERPRETATION OF LOAN DISPUTES IN THE MERCHANT OF VENICE

Li Sun

School of Foreign Languages,Nanyang Institute of Technology,Nanyang,China

Email:sunli_lizhi@163.com

[Abstract] In The Merchant of Venice,businessman Antonio and businessman Shylock are representatives of Christians and Jews respectively.In the play,the contract disputes caused by Antonio's loan to the usurer Shylock reflect the religious conflict between Judaism and Christianity,the conflict of profit idea between the emerging bourgeoisie and usurers during the Renaissance.This paper starts with the loan disputes between Antonio and Shylock and analyzes its historical,religious,legal and moral background,so that readers can better understand the role identity and values of the emerging bourgeois businessmen in Shakespeare's time.

[Keywords] The Merchant of Venice;loan disputes;realism

INTRODUCTION

After he succeeded to the throne in the early 16th century,Henry VIII completely broke with the Roman Catholic Church,established the Anglican Church,and proclaimed himself the leader of the Anglican Church.Since then,England has established a monarchical dictatorship,and all people must be fully loyal to the king.At the same time,the rapid development of British manufacturing trade formed a nationwide market which urgently required a high degree of political concentration and the absolute authority of the Monarch.Merchants and craftsmen gradually formed a new bourgeoisie.The"Asceticism"of the British Protestant advocates the creation of wealth through labor and opposes waste in life.Hard work and a frugal life will inevitably lead to the accumulation of capital and promote the development of British capitalism.With the rapid development of capitalist economy,Britain continued to prosper,occupying a dominate position in the world maritime trade after defeating the Spanish Armada.During this period,British culture was flourishing.Some progressive humanists began to pay attention to the environment in which "people"lived,what people did when they were creating literature.

British drama also developed greatly during the Renaissance.William Shakespeare is the greatest playwright in the history of English literature and the founder of realistic literature.He enjoys a high status in the history of world literature.The Merchant of Veniceis a great comedy in the mature period of Shakespeare's literary creation.It involves both a Venetian comedy atmosphere and a Jewish tragic ending.It is an important transition period for Shakespeare from comedy creation to tragedy creation.The play describes scenes of people's pursuit of love,friendship and money in real life,reflecting Shakespeare's in-depth thinking on the values of the emerging bourgeoisie.According to the plot,the Jewish businessman Shylock hated the Venetian businessman Antonio for two main reasons:one is that Antonio is a Christian;the other is that Antonio borrows money without taking interest.Antonio's behavior of borrowing money without taking interest hindered Sherlock's usury business,stimulated the miser Sherlock's vengeance,laying the groundwork for the contradictions of the two protagonists in the play.

CHRISTIANITY AND JUDAISM

Christianity originated from Judaism,because Jesus and his disciples were Jews,and the Jewish Bible was also their Bible.The Christian doctrine of Jesus contains many Jewish traditions,such as monotheism and the Ten Commandments.In order to maintain the unity of faith,Christian leaders compiled the doctrine of Jesus into a New Testament and added it to the Bible of ancient Hebrew religious writings.If people don't understand Judaism in the time of Jesus,it is difficult to understand Jesus' life and teachings.Although many doctrines of Christianity are the same as Judaism,their interpretation of God has still some differences.First,Judaism believes that God is one and unique,while Christianity believes that God is a"trinity"composed of a father,a son,and the Holy Spirit.Second,Christians believe that Jesus is their Messiah,who is incarnation of the Son of God,came to the world to suffer and be resurrected.While Judaism believes that the Jewish Messiah has not yet arrived,the Jewish community regards Hebrew scriptures as sacred.Third,Judaism strictly observes the moral and ritual precepts of the Hebrew Bible in life,while Christianity only considers the Ten Commandments in the Jewish Bible,emphasizing the faith of Jesus Christ giving people the grace,ability and guidance to enable people to live a moral life.

Many historians and sociologists believe that Christianity is a proletarian movement,a paradise for Roman slaves and poor people.The Savior of Christianity,Jesus,was a carpenter and a non-Roman citizen,representing the lower class of ancient Roman society.Jesus preaches God's personal relationship with each"person",teaches people to love God,neighbors,enemies,and self,and teaches that God will end the evil in the world and build an eternal kingdom for those who truly repent.In the letters of the apostle "Paul",a follower of Jesus,it is mentioned that there are no Jews,no Greeks,no men,no women,no slaves,and no free people in the Christian community.This preaches all Christians are equal.In the class structure of the Roman Empire,there was a large group of ordinary working people.These working people were divided into two classes:The first class was Roman citizens who were not rich,but these people had the privileges of Roman citizens and could be tried in the court.The second class was non-Roman citizens who are free but do not enjoy the privileges of Roman citizens.They can be sentenced to death without a formal trial.Below the ordinary working people is the lowest class in Roman society.These people are slaves and can be legally bought and sold,whipped and tortured.At the time when Jesus lived,almost one third Italian population was under slavery.As the most ordinary working people,Jesus neglected wealth and position and used simple and straightforward words when preaching and promised eternal life after death.

...Love your enemies,do good to them which hate you,Bless them that curse you,and pray for them which despitefully use you.And unto him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other;and him that taketh away thy cloak forbid not to take thy coat also.Give to every man that asketh of thee;and of him that taketh away thy goods ask them not again.And as ye would that men should do to you,do ye also to them likewise(Luke 6:27-31).

Therefore,his teachings gave hope to the poor and the oppressed.With various persecutions by the rulers of ancient Rome,Christianity still developed into a world-influential religion.

THE OLD TESTAMENT AND THE NEW TESTAMENT

The Old Testament refers to the Jewish Bible,which was compiled by the Rabbi in accordance with the teachings of Judaism.In its teaching on loans and interest,the Old Testament persuades people to lend money to their poor brothers without charging interest,but advocate that Jews should charge interest from strangers (i.e.pagans).Three paragraphs in the Old Testament mention the topic of lending and interest,as follows:"If thou lend money to any of my people that is poor by thee,thou shalt not be to him as an usurer,neither shalt thou lay upon him usury"(Exodus,22,25);"And if thy brother be waxen poor,and fallen in decay with thee;then thou shalt relieve him....Thou shalt not give him thy money upon usury,nor lend him thy victuals for increase" (Leviticus,25,35,37);"Unto a stranger thou mayest lend upon usury;but unto thy brother thou shalt not lend upon usury" (Deuteronomy,23,20).The first two paragraphs clearly explains that it is forbidden to charge interest on loans to the poor Jews.In the third paragraph,the word"poor"is removed,indicating that the Old Testament forbids Israelites from lending usury or charging interest on any loan each other,which shows the Jewish nation's xenophobia.

Shakespeare's comedyThe Merchant of Venicetook place in the Italian city—Venice.In Renaissance Europe,Jews were seen as a threat to Christians,and Jews were expelled from England in 1290.Some Jews fled to Venice.Although they played an important role in the economic prosperity of Venice,they were still considered pagans in the eyes of Christians,and they were despised and insulted by Christians.The laws of Venice also restrict the work of Jews.Jews mainly rely on usury for profit,but the doctrine of the New Testament that Christians believe in borrowing without interest blocked the way for Jews to make money and deepened their hatred of Christians.The New Testament tells that Christians should lend money to family and friends out of love not for interest,such as"But love ye your enemies,and do good,and lend,hoping for nothing again;and your reward shall be great,and ye shall be the children of the Highest:for he is kind unto the unthankful and to the evil.Be ye therefore merciful,as your Father also is merciful" (Luke,6,35-36).New Testament also tells that people should do good,to be rich in good deeds,to be generous givers,then they will save up a treasure for their future use,"That they do good,that they be rich in good works,ready to distribute,willing to communicate;laying up in a store for themselves a good foundation against the time to come,that they may lay hold on eternal life"(Timothy,6,18-19).

Antonio's attitude towards friends inThe Merchant of Venicereflects the generosity of Christians and a sense of social justice.As the "New Testament" tells "Give to him that asketh thee,and from him that would borrow of thee turn not thou away"(Matthew,5,42).Although Bassanio's family declines and owes a lot of debts to Antonio,Antonio still keeps loyal to their friendship and appreciates Bassanio's open and upright style,even willing to borrow money in his own name to help Bassanio pursue wealthy Portia,a rich family heir in the town of Belmont.In addition,the end of the court trial shows Antonio's compassion and tolerance.The court judged that Shylock threatened the life of Venetian citizens as a foreigner,and sentenced that half of Shylock's property belonged to the victim,Antonio,and half of the property was in the public treasury.Although Sherlock was preoccupied with designing trap to take Antonio's life,Antonio still pleaded with the judge to avoid confiscation of half of Shylock's property,and was willing to hand over half of the property he took over to his daughter Jessica and son-in-law Lorenzo after Shylock died.The condition is that Sherlock became a Christian.This shows that Christianity welcomes all converts,forgives its enemies,and exhorts them to be kind.It is this universality that makes Christianity a global religion.

LAW AND MERCY

The contract scenario inThe Merchant of Venicereflects the importance of the"contract"in the emerging British bourgeois business trade.However,from the procedures of Antonio's borrowing from Shylock,it can be seen that the contract between them is more like a social commitment,not a written law.After the two parties promised and reached a formal agreement,Shylock handed over the contract to the notary.In addition,in order to avenge the Venetian businessman Antonio,the Jewish businessman Shylock asked Antonio to sign a contract that"If you repay me not on such a day,…let the forfeit be nominated for an equal pound of your fair flesh,to be cut off and taken in what part of your body pleaseth me" (Shakespeare,n.d.).According to common law,this kind of contract violates public policy because of involving murder.Therefore,it is an illegal contract that cannot be implemented and should be cancelled by the court immediately.Nevertheless,Shakespeare did not make the trial process so simple.Instead,he vividly portrayed the cruelty of the Jewish businessman Shylock,and vividly expressed the Jewish law "eye for eye,tooth for tooth" (Exodus,21:24).When the Duke asked Shylock whether he could sympathize with Antonio and renounce his punishment,Sherlock replied cruelly,"by our holy Sabbath have I sorn,to have the due and forfeit of my bond:If you deny it,let the danger light upon your charter and your city's freedom(Shakespeare,n.d.)."

Free trade prevailed during the Renaissance in the 16th century.If the contract signed between the two parties in commercial trade is considered invalid,it will seriously affect the open market supported by the British capitalist economy.Therefore,the businessman Shylock took advantage of the strictness of the contract law for revenge,claiming "I stand for judgement","I stand here for law" (The merchant of Venice),insisting having his bond and refusing forgiveness "I would have my bond…The pound of flesh,which I demand of him…'tis mine" (Shakespeare,n.d.).Sherlock's words showed the ruthlessness of the law.However,at the beginning of the court trial,the Duke tried to arouse Shylock's better feelings and exempt Antonio from penalty.The good deed of Duke reflected the judge's principle of handling the case according to the"conscience"and embodies the kindness of Christians.

The law embodies the rules that are binding the behavior of state members,which are fixed and harsh.However,when the contract law was used in court to resolve loan disputes,the Jews and the Venetians gave different interpretations.The Jews'interpretation showed the severity of Jewish Mosaic Law,and the Venetians'interpretation embodied the mercy of Christians.Although Shylock's understanding of social justice was in line with the demands of economic development of capitalist economy,as a foreigner,it was illegal for Shylock to harm the citizens of Venice.Portia,posing as a lawyer,claimed that according to the law,the Jews have the right to demand a pound of meat from the merchant's chest.She further states that according to the Venetian law,Sherlock can only take a pound of meat without blood,"if thou dost shed one drop of Christian blood,thy lands and goods are,by the laws of Venice,confiscate unto the state of Venice" (Shakespeare,n.d.).It can be seen that the interpretation of contract law in Shakespeare's time was arbitrary and inconsistent.In the end,the benevolence of Christians defeated the harshness of the law.This outcome shows that Shakespeare did not support strict enforcement of contract law.

INTERESTS AND FRIENDSHIP

Venice is a world-famous cultural and mercantile hub during the Renaissance,and the home to people of different nationalities and cultures.Venice is a city under the rule of law,and it also has a relatively free position on the legal status of the aliens in the city.Therefore,"The courts of the Venetian Republic were accessible not only to Venetians,but also to those regarded as'strangers',which would include Shylock"(Freed,2009,p.51).The economic development of Venice in the 16th century benefited from the participation of merchants from different geographical cultures.As Drakakis(2010,p.3)states,"From the fifteenth century onwards Venice established itself as a dominant maritime power whose access to Turkey and to the trade routes of the eastern Mediterranean contributed to its reputation as a multicultural republic".Usury is the fuse of the conflict between the two protagonists in the drama,Antonio and Sherlock.The Jewish businessman Shylock's act of lending usury in the play comes from the law of Mosaic that he believes in to collect interest.Shakespeare's praise of generous and benevolent Christians is mainly reflected in the Christian businessman Antonio.Antonio's attitude of lending money to his good friend Bassanio can show the virtues of the Christian businessman.

When Bassanio borrow money from Antonio,he used economic and legal terms to explain his debt repayment plan,but Antonio did not consider the risks of borrowing as a businessman,but showed his understanding of friendship and Christian's sense of responsibility to help others.He said to Bassanio without hesitation,"Within the eye of honour,be assur'd/My purse,my person,my extremest means,Lie all unlock'd to your occasions"(Shakespeare,n.d.).Since all his property is at sea,Antonio recklessly decides to use his credit to borrow money for his friend,"Try what my credit can in Venice do;That shall be rack'd,even to the uttermost,to furnish thee to Belmont,to fair Portia.Go,presently inquire,and so will I,where money is;and I no question make,to have it of my trust,or for my sake"(Shakespeare,n.d.).The use of the words"my trust"and"my sake"respectively represents the"credit"of Antonio as a businessman and the"honor"he won in helping others.He chose to borrow because he believed that Christians will get help from other Venetian merchants when they need to borrow money,after helping people in need.It can be seen from this that Antonio is a devout Christian businessman with good business ethics,willing to sacrifice his property(my purse) and his life (my person) to satisfy his poor friend's request,regardless of how much economic benefits his deed can bring.Rationally speaking,Antonio trusts his friends excessively and is willing to take risks for his friends'loans.This kind of business decision is too reckless for a businessman in actual situations,not a smart decision,especially when Antonio tells his friends his property situation,"Neither have I money nor commodity to raise a present sum" (Shakespeare,n.d.).Shakespeare might want to express the idea that the benevolent values of Christian merchants are compatible with the acquisition of economic interests.

CONCLUSION

The British Renaissance Movement was supported by King Henry VIII and Edward VI.British scholars learned and revived classical culture.Some of Shakespeare's plays were adapted from the stories of characters in classical books.With prosperous development of capitalism,the British Renaissance has its religious and trade characteristics.They believe in the "Bible" and advocate free trade.In "The Merchant of Venice",Shakespeare vividly portrays the sadness of the Christian businessman Antonio,his loyalty to friendship,his benevolence to his enemies,the Jewish businessman Sherlock's stinginess towards his daughter and servant,and his vengeance and ruthlessness towards Christians.The sharp contrast shows the rich spiritual world of"people"and the social environment in which the British bourgeoisie in the 16th century lived.Shakespeare praised the kindness of Christian businessmen and satirized the treacherousness of Jewish businessmen,reflecting Christian humanistic values.