構(gòu)建中國國家公園體系路徑中的挑戰(zhàn)與機遇

著：（美）史蒂夫·麥庫爾 譯：彭欽一 校：莊優(yōu)波

無論是在中國還是在其他國家，構(gòu)建國家公園體系的路徑都不是單一的，甚至單個國家公園的建立都可能有所不同。例如，在美國，黃石公園是經(jīng)過長期的探索、評估和國會行動才成為國家公園的，而附近的大提頓國家公園在命名過程中則走了一條不同的道路。這些過程會因不同國家、不同時代特定的社會和政治背景而異。

盡管路徑是多元的，但是在不同國家，國家公園體系所具有的意義是相似的。首先，國家公園體系能保護自然和文化遺產(chǎn)；其次，國家公園體系能將人們與這些珍貴遺產(chǎn)聯(lián)系起來；最后，國家公園體系能夠促進社會的繁榮，因為人們需要記住他們的根基才能夠繼續(xù)前進。

在本文中，筆者將闡釋構(gòu)建國家公園體系的3條主要路徑：1）為什么需要國家公園體系，2）就保護的社會—生態(tài)系統(tǒng)而言，國家公園體系應(yīng)當(dāng)有什么特征，3）實現(xiàn)國家公園的愿景需要實施的具體行動。每一條路徑都會受到不同國家特定社會文化特征的影響。

1 構(gòu)建國家公園體系的多種路徑The multiple pathways to build a national park system

2 “為什么”：體系的目標(biāo)The “Why”: the system goal

3大提頓國家公園的莫爾頓谷倉The Moulton Barn in Grand Teton National Park

1 國家公園體系設(shè)計過程中的挑戰(zhàn)

在某些方面，20世紀(jì)上半葉美國的情況和今天的中國非常相似。雖然，美國最早的國家公園在19世紀(jì)末便已經(jīng)成立，但是直到1916年才由統(tǒng)一的管理機構(gòu)進行全面的管理。在之后近45年的時間里，國家公園和國家紀(jì)念地的管理分散在包括美國軍方在內(nèi)的多個機構(gòu)之中，導(dǎo)致了一系列脫節(jié)的政策和各不相同的管理理念，直到Stephen T. Mather（一位富有的商人，也是國家公園管理局第一任局長）提議成立一個機構(gòu)進行統(tǒng)一管理。因此，國家公園管理局的成立旨在提供統(tǒng)一一致的管理措施以應(yīng)對保護自然遺產(chǎn)面臨的挑戰(zhàn)。

無論是新成立的還是成熟的國家公園體系，都面臨著來自兩個層面的多個挑戰(zhàn)。在國家層面，這些挑戰(zhàn)主要涉及制定和實施與整個系統(tǒng)相關(guān)的政策，涉及門票和使用費征收、特許經(jīng)營政策、沖突管理和開發(fā)程序等問題。在單個公園層面主要有3個挑戰(zhàn)。 1）如何設(shè)計和管理國家公園，可能涉及道路和游步道建設(shè)，解說項目設(shè)計和游客管理等方面。2）如何保護國家公園，避免各種對其重要的生態(tài)和文化價值造成影響的威脅。這是一個重要的挑戰(zhàn)，因為國家公園與周邊區(qū)域密切聯(lián)系，發(fā)生在國家公園周邊的各種外力與過程可能會對公園的重要價值造成威脅。3）涉及公園管理和價值的可持續(xù)性問題。

2 構(gòu)建體系的多種路徑

構(gòu)建國家公園體系需要時間和廣泛宣傳，以獲取不僅來自管理者和專家，也包括普通大眾和政策制定者的支持。筆者將用一張思維導(dǎo)圖來展示構(gòu)建體系涉及的主要路徑（圖1）。這張思維導(dǎo)圖是關(guān)于這些路徑的“心理模型”，也可以說是筆者看待世界的方式。在系統(tǒng)構(gòu)建的基礎(chǔ)上，建立控制和監(jiān)控機制，即通過集中的政策和管理機制來實施，并對其進行監(jiān)測評估，包括一些政策和程序，例如資金、實施次序、專業(yè)化管理人員的公務(wù)員制度以及組織架構(gòu)設(shè)計等。

3種路徑可以解決系統(tǒng)的實質(zhì)性問題，幫助構(gòu)建國家公園體系。筆者將以問題的角度對這3種路徑進行考察。

首先應(yīng)當(dāng)強調(diào)“為什么”的問題（例如，國家公園體系的目的），其次是“怎么樣（國家公園體系未來有哪些特征）”的問題，最后關(guān)注“做什么”，關(guān)注在面對特定挑戰(zhàn)和機遇時，國家公園需要實施哪些政策和管理方面的行動。

在“為什么”部分，第一個值得探討的問題涉及對國家公園體系的需求，需要解決社會對包括國家公園在內(nèi)的自然保護地體系的需求。其次是對未來某個時間段國家公園體系建成狀況的愿景。對愿景的陳述與目標(biāo)相關(guān)，可采取類似“國家公園體系成功地保護了國家豐富多樣的文化遺產(chǎn)”的陳述方式。第三部分強調(diào)對整個國家公園體系和單個公園的規(guī)劃。

“怎么樣”的問題涉及國家公園體系的特征，通常包括生態(tài)完整性，文化完整性，轉(zhuǎn)變性的游客體驗機會，社區(qū)發(fā)展和其他類似代表性、包容性等因素。

“做什么”的部分涉及應(yīng)對挑戰(zhàn)的具體行動。其中，首要的挑戰(zhàn)便是組織者和管理者應(yīng)當(dāng)具備運轉(zhuǎn)國家公園體系的必要能力。這些能力包括以下5個方面：1）規(guī)劃和組織公園發(fā)展；2）保護公園免受威脅；3）與公園周邊社區(qū)合作；4）形成管理理念；5）游客管理。

以上便是構(gòu)建國家公園體系的3條路徑。

現(xiàn)在中國的國家公園試點區(qū)是重要的嘗試，不僅有利于在實踐中檢驗思路，也將為這3種路徑的設(shè)計與實施提供有價值的信息。一般而言，國家公園體系的建設(shè)過程并非一帆風(fēng)順，有時像攀登山峰，困難重重；有時如同行走在山谷中，閑庭信步。

值得一提的是，在探索過程中，我們的目標(biāo)往往也在發(fā)展。當(dāng)我們檢驗思路，并投入更多的精力時，我們的愿景也往往會隨之改變。例如100多年前美國國家公園管理局剛剛建立的時候，它們的愿景與現(xiàn)在所提倡的已經(jīng)有了一定的不同。在100多年前，美國國家公園管理局專注于保護風(fēng)景價值高的區(qū)域，而現(xiàn)在其愿景強調(diào)保護生態(tài)系統(tǒng)與生態(tài)過程。愿景的重要價值在于其作為一個指南針，為我們指引前進的方向，幫助我們設(shè)置一系列原則，例如為游客提供轉(zhuǎn)變性的體驗機會、保護生態(tài)過程等，確保我們不偏離航線。

國家公園是一個系統(tǒng)。因此，為了應(yīng)對挑戰(zhàn)與機遇，多學(xué)科交融是不可或缺的，僅憑借一個學(xué)科已經(jīng)無法解決復(fù)雜的問題。為了確保國家公園的管理能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)指定的愿景，需要整合不同學(xué)科，通力合作。這種整合重在消除許多自然資源管理機構(gòu)各自具有的“思維局限”（“silos” of thinking），帶來不同文化、思想和學(xué)科的交融，在具備多元文化的中國，具有重要的意義。

最后，我們還需要系統(tǒng)性思維來指導(dǎo)國家公園的管理。Senge[1]將系統(tǒng)性思維定義為“一種識別整體的思維模式，重在建立物體之間關(guān)系而非探究單個物體，識別事物變化模式而非靜止的單一印象”。因此，“整體”（即國家公園體系和單個國家公園的愿景）的建立應(yīng)當(dāng)成為首要任務(wù)，在這之后，再考慮各個部分應(yīng)當(dāng)如何去實現(xiàn)目標(biāo)。這與建筑師的思考方式很類似：建筑師在與客戶互動的過程中，首先確立建筑物的愿景（其目標(biāo)與整體形象），之后各個部分（房間設(shè)計、暖通空調(diào)、流線、照明等）的設(shè)計都共同致力于實現(xiàn)這個愿景。

然而，需要強調(diào)的是，實現(xiàn)愿景的路徑有很多，系統(tǒng)性思維是其中一種思考的方式。

國家公園的管理經(jīng)驗（教訓(xùn)）大部分來自對愿景的考慮不充分。我們往往習(xí)慣于對部分的思考，例如相較于食肉動物，對食草動物的偏愛等，黃石國家公園沒有考慮狼在整個生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中的重要作用，缺乏對整個系統(tǒng)的認(rèn)知，對狼進行清除，導(dǎo)致了麋鹿種群數(shù)量的迅速且不可持續(xù)的增長，進一步導(dǎo)致了植被的劇烈變化。

后文將會對每一種路徑進行更詳細(xì)的解釋。

2.1 “為什么”：國家公園體系的愿景

“為什么”的問題與構(gòu)建國家公園體系的需求有關(guān)，涉及需要實現(xiàn)什么以及在當(dāng)前狀態(tài)下有何欠缺。

在“為什么”的問題中，愿景是很重要的（圖2），因為它與我們的最終目標(biāo)和不同階段的目標(biāo)有關(guān)。愿景是對希冀的未來狀態(tài)的描繪，是一個激動人心的宣言，也是對一系列超越現(xiàn)狀的理想條件的渴求。

此外，“為什么”也需要考慮規(guī)劃的方面。規(guī)劃是一個復(fù)雜的過程，最終旨在制定相關(guān)的政策與程序，以實現(xiàn)系統(tǒng)的愿景[2]。

現(xiàn)如今，生態(tài)系統(tǒng)完整性已經(jīng)作為國家公園體系的一個重要目標(biāo)而被廣泛接受，同時，在國家公園體系中，另外兩個目標(biāo)同樣重要。其中之一是游客體驗，這是人們前往國家公園游覽的動力。這種體驗通常集中于能夠與突出的自然和文化環(huán)境互動的區(qū)域，使游客能夠了解該國家或地區(qū)的遺產(chǎn)。當(dāng)然，還有其他動力促使游客前往國家公園，例如逃離、釋放壓力、冒險、挑戰(zhàn)等。但對國家公園的規(guī)劃與管理而言，這些與自然和文化遺產(chǎn)的互動具有重要意義，既能夠讓游客了解和欣賞被保護的價值，促進更健康的生活方式，也能夠為當(dāng)?shù)厣鐓^(qū)提供經(jīng)濟支撐。

中國具有獨特的自然與文化遺產(chǎn)，在許多風(fēng)景名勝區(qū)，自然和文化水乳交融，無法分割。因此，中國能夠提供在其他國家的國家公園中并不常見的獨特體驗，向游客展示在幾千年的時間里，人與自然是如何共生的。

在美國，這種文化和自然互動的一個典型案例位于美國懷俄明州的大提頓國家公園內(nèi)。在19世紀(jì)末和20世紀(jì)初，有一小群人在此定居，嘗試耕種這片土地。這個小社區(qū)如今已經(jīng)廢棄，但是他們的房子和谷倉保留了下來。這些建筑與它們的歷史向我們闡釋了這個美國落基山脈里的小農(nóng)業(yè)社區(qū)為了成功而克服的困難。這些殘留的建筑現(xiàn)在被保護起來，并成為吸引游客的景點。莫爾頓谷倉（Moulton Barn）是其中的一個建筑（圖3），現(xiàn)在吸引了大量的游客，尤其是那些為了拍攝它坐落在提頓山脈前照片的攝影愛好者。

在其他國家公園里，也有一些類似的現(xiàn)象，例如美國科羅拉多州的梅薩維德國家公園，保存了1 000多年前阿納薩齊或稱為懸崖穴居文化的建筑遺存，這個文化的消失至今仍是人類學(xué)和考古學(xué)研究領(lǐng)域的謎題。中國的黃山也是這種文化和環(huán)境融合的典型案例之一。

國家公園的參觀游覽也會為附近的社區(qū)帶來經(jīng)濟增長和活力。游客的支出是國家公園附近的居民和政府的重要收入來源。這些收入不僅能提升居民的生活水平，同時，如果這些收入被用于提升社區(qū)的應(yīng)變能力，也能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)更具調(diào)節(jié)能力的社區(qū)，為應(yīng)對經(jīng)濟變化、天氣變化甚至災(zāi)難等更大空間尺度的突發(fā)事件做好準(zhǔn)備。

文化是不同國家決定各自不同的實現(xiàn)路徑的關(guān)鍵因素。就中國而言，實現(xiàn)保護的路徑一定要結(jié)合中國文化與環(huán)境。這是一個展示中國的文化與歷史的絕佳機會，展示中國自然與文化遺產(chǎn)的統(tǒng)一與完整。

2.2 “怎么樣”：構(gòu)建體系的第2條路徑是做出關(guān)于國家公園體系特征的重大決策

在美國，國家公園體系的設(shè)計與它的發(fā)展歷史息息相關(guān)，且這個體系以一個相對機會主義和偶然的方式繼續(xù)發(fā)展。在19世紀(jì)晚期和20世紀(jì)早期，決策主要涉及道路、特許經(jīng)營和野生物種等方面，且只有當(dāng)問題出現(xiàn)時，才會有相關(guān)的決策出現(xiàn)，而非通過規(guī)劃的路徑去解決。因此，管理者沒有考慮食肉動物在整個生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中的地位，例如黃石國家公園中的狼就被滅絕了，而灰熊則往往滿足了游客的好奇心，它們在國家公園的垃圾堆里翻找的場景成為游客夜晚的娛樂[3]①。直到20世紀(jì)90年代，人們才意識到狼群應(yīng)當(dāng)重返黃石，這個決定也反映了變化的文化價值觀。

中國現(xiàn)在擁有大好的機會，在國家公園體系發(fā)展的早期就制定政策、程序和管理策略。同時，中國能夠評估美國及其他國家在建立國家公園過程中所犯下的錯誤，并構(gòu)建更一致合理的系統(tǒng)性管理理念。

4 “怎么樣”：決定體系的特征The “How”: deciding how the system will look

5 另一個涉及“做什么”的路徑Another pathway deals with the “What”

以國家公園體系的愿景為前提，政策制定者、管理者、學(xué)者和公眾能夠更好地討論國家公園的特征。

雖然文化完整性、生態(tài)完整性和社區(qū)發(fā)展等概念在全世界的國家公園體系中占有重要的地位，但其他一些特征也很重要（圖4）。國家公園能夠為人們提供轉(zhuǎn)變性的體驗機會，讓人發(fā)生改變。在了解自然和文化遺產(chǎn)的過程中，游客會受到影響；他們會受到啟發(fā)，想要對這些遺產(chǎn)有進一步的了解；他們會變得更具有生態(tài)和文化意識。當(dāng)游客體驗到這些時，他們會將這些美好的回憶帶回家，并通過他們的經(jīng)歷去影響更多潛在的游客。

其他一些特征包括代表性、包容性以及路徑的文化決定性。代表性的概念意味著整個國家公園體系需要代表一個國家生態(tài)系統(tǒng)、景觀甚至文化的多樣性。包容性意味著國家公園體系的設(shè)計過程納入國家的人民和不同的民族，且最終的結(jié)果反映出他們的價值觀。舉例來說，加拿大國家公園代表包括原住民在內(nèi)的加拿大人民以及他們的價值觀與行為規(guī)范，并與之息息相關(guān)。因此，盡管美國和加拿大彼此相鄰，但是加拿大國家公園體系的設(shè)計與美國截然不同。值得一提的是，兩個國家的路徑并無對錯之分，只是取決于每個國家所接受的與特定文化相關(guān)的理想愿景。

2.3 “做什么”：實施的行動

為了保證各個保護區(qū)域的價值，國家公園需要什么樣的行動計劃是一個重要的問題。能力建設(shè)、管理理念的落實，游客使用，社區(qū)影響，威脅應(yīng)對和游客體驗都是重要的議題（圖5）。

因為每個國家公園都是獨特的，而且與政府管理的其他項目截然不同，所以，就保護國家公園內(nèi)的自然和文化遺產(chǎn)而言，管理理念的落實是一個最基本的內(nèi)容。

一旦附近的區(qū)域被劃為國家公園，社區(qū)將在經(jīng)濟、社會和文化等方面受到不同程度的影響。就經(jīng)濟方面的影響而言，國家公園能夠幫助提升社區(qū)勞動者的收入，給勞動力提供晉升機會（更高薪金的工作），幫助社區(qū)建立抵抗風(fēng)險的能力。無可否認(rèn)的是，國家公園的劃定導(dǎo)致畜牧、礦產(chǎn)或林業(yè)的退出，對某些區(qū)域也會造成一些消極的影響。當(dāng)然，有時候也可以通過旅游業(yè)來消解這些消極的影響。

就文化方面的影響而言，國家公園將使社區(qū)與外界的思想有了更充分的接觸，也可能給本地文化帶來不利的影響。

例如，一棟廢棄的建筑坐落在納米比亞的納米布沙漠世界遺產(chǎn)地的卡曼斯科小鎮(zhèn)（圖6）。這個被遺棄的社區(qū)是因金礦而興起，當(dāng)時納米比亞還是德國的殖民地。在20世紀(jì)20年代，由于鉆石的枯竭且周邊地區(qū)并未發(fā)現(xiàn)鉆石的蹤跡，人們遺棄了這個社區(qū)。然而，時過境遷，因為老建筑與沙子完美的結(jié)合，現(xiàn)在這個場所受到了攝影愛好者的熱捧。因此，這個被遺棄的社區(qū)也成為一個吸引游客的旅游景點，展示著人與自然的相互作用。

國家公園不能將自己與因其建立和管理而受到影響的社區(qū)隔絕開。因此，國家公園的管理者們需要預(yù)測這些影響的可能形式，并針對這些影響建立合作關(guān)系與相應(yīng)的策略。

能力建設(shè)是國家公園面臨的另一項重要任務(wù)。對于規(guī)劃和管理而言，技術(shù)和組織的能力至關(guān)重要。國家公園的規(guī)劃和管理涉及從領(lǐng)導(dǎo)力、政策規(guī)劃到游步道維護的一系列技術(shù)。當(dāng)然，這些技術(shù)并非一人所有，但每個國家公園都需要獲得這些能力。

管理持續(xù)增長的游客使用和旅游業(yè)發(fā)展已經(jīng)成為一項重要且棘手的內(nèi)容。不僅影響了單個國家公園目標(biāo)的實現(xiàn)，也影響了被稱為“愛知目標(biāo)”（Aichi Targets）的生物多樣性公約中所闡釋的目標(biāo)[4]。在克羅地亞的普利特維湖國家公園（筆者在此工作過數(shù)年時間），游客已經(jīng)成為一個特別重要的問題。由于擁擠的道路，游客對他們的體驗并不滿意。來到國家公園中的游客應(yīng)當(dāng)充滿笑容，而非愁眉不展（圖7）。

位于納米比亞納米布沙漠世界遺產(chǎn)地的一個經(jīng)歷了800年風(fēng)雨的死去的森林展現(xiàn)了世界上最特別的自然特征（圖8）。這樣的體驗與普利特維湖國家公園完全不同，因此也需要區(qū)別化的管理。

國家公園通常能夠為游客提供轉(zhuǎn)變性的、同時又令人難以忘懷的體驗機會。例如，在橫跨北極圈的加拿大奧尤提克（Auyuttiq）國家公園，由于在30km2的范圍內(nèi)僅有屈指可數(shù)的游客，游客在欣賞山脈和冰川構(gòu)成的絕美景色的同時，可以充分享受獨處的機會（圖9）。而在中國，優(yōu)美的自然風(fēng)光往往與文化遺產(chǎn)交融在一起，提供了西方世界知之甚少的體驗機會（圖10）。

3 結(jié)論

總而言之，構(gòu)建國家公園體系并非只有單一的路徑。在發(fā)展策略中，多種路徑將會同時作用。這些路徑是不可分割的整體，且必須把它們各自視為整體中的一部分進行考慮。

對國家公園而言，愿景是必需的，這不僅有助于做出判斷，也能夠激勵員工和游客，讓他們認(rèn)識到國家公園體系存在的原因。大提頓國家公園的壯麗山脈能夠讓游客們在夏天早上5:00起床，看著初升的太陽漸漸在山脈上灑下光芒，欣賞這難以置信的美景（圖11）。

需要指出的是，管理系統(tǒng)的機構(gòu)是由3個主要元素組成的，這些元素需要遵循不同的規(guī)律。首先是在一系列普遍的政策和程序指導(dǎo)下運行的一組相互關(guān)聯(lián)的成分。其次，該系統(tǒng)由受過保護地管理訓(xùn)練的專業(yè)管理者和技術(shù)人員組成。第三是組織內(nèi)部的信息交流渠道，能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)自上而下的政策傳達與自下而上的反饋。這是一種在官僚機構(gòu)中常見的方式，政策傳遞到底層，由底層進行落實，再由底層的管理者向上提供反饋意見，確?？偛磕軌蛘_判斷這些政策在特定條件下的實際運作情況。

盡管游客數(shù)量和游客的消費是很重要的，但國家公園的管理仍需專注于為游客提供轉(zhuǎn)變性的體驗機會。此外，在規(guī)劃和管理中，一系列理論上和實踐中的技巧也是不可或缺的。

中國全新的國家公園體系擁有一個良機，通過前所未有的路徑去實現(xiàn)這些可能性，使自然和文化遺產(chǎn)得以良好保護，提供優(yōu)質(zhì)的游客體驗機會，并且促進當(dāng)?shù)亟?jīng)濟增長。這是一個巨大的挑戰(zhàn)，也是一個前所未有的機遇。

注釋：

① 詳見McCool在1983年關(guān)于美國國家公園管理的3次浪潮的討論。

② 文中所有圖片均由史蒂夫·麥庫爾提供。

There is not a single pathway in building a national park system in China or in any other country. How for example, an area becomes a national park may vary from park to park. For example, in the U.S., Yellowstone became a national park only after a long history of exploration,assessment, and congressional action. Nearby Grand Teton National Park followed a different path in its designation process. These processes will vary by country and by the particular social and political context of the situation and the times.

Although pathways are multiple, what a new national park system provides among countries is held in common. First, a national park system provides opportunities to protect natural and cultural heritage. Second, it is important for the system to connect people with this heritage. And last but not the least, it is very important that societies flourish, because somehow people have to remember where they came from in order to move on to the future.

In this paper, I speak to the three major pathways to a national park system: 1) The “Why” of the a need for a national park system; 2) The “How”of the system, in terms of the social-ecological system it protects is characterized; 3) “What” actions are needed to meet the vision defined in the Why and in the “How”. Each pathway is followed depending on the social and cultural characteristics and influences of a particular country.

1 The Challenges in Designing a New National Park System

In some ways, the situation in the United States around the first part of the 20th century was very similar to today’s China. In the U.S., although national parks were initially designated beginning in the late 19th century, there was no singular administration providing overall stewardship until 1916. For nearly 45 years, national parks and monuments were administered by several agencies, including the U.S.Army. This resulted in a disjointed set of policies and differing philosophies of management. It was not until a wealthy businessman (Stephen T. Mather—who became the first Director of the National Park Service) proposed that all units be administered by a single agency. As a result, the National Park Service was created to provide uniform and consistent management direction in response to the challenges of protecting natural heritage.

A National Park System faces many challenges whether new or well established. These challenges occur at two levels. On the national level, the challenges deal primarily with developing and implementing policy for the system as a whole.These challenges are issues such as imposition of entrance and user fees, concessionaire policy,management of conflicts, or development processes.At the individual park level there are three main challenges. The first challenge is how to design and manage individual units. This may include items such as road and trail construction, design of interpretive programs, visitor management and so on. The second is how to protect the park from various threats to its significant ecological and cultural values. This is an important challenge since the park does not exist in isolation from forces and processes that happen around it. These could potentially threaten the very values for which it was established.The third challenge deals with questions about the sustainability of the park’s management and values.

2 Multiple Pathways to Build the System

Building a system takes time and understanding to develop support among not only managers and professionals but also the general public and key policy makers. I use a mind map to show the major pathways involved in building a system. A mind map is my “mental model” of these pathways, how I see the world you might say. My mind map of these pathways are shown in Figure 1. At the foundation of the system, there needs to be a sort of control and monitoring mechanism built, implemented and itself monitored through centralized policy and administration. This includes policies and procedures such as funding, establishment process, a civil service for professionalization of managers, the organizational design and so on.

To build the national park system, there are three pathways addressing the substantive aspect of the system. I pose these three pathways as questions, as it is often helpful to think in terms of questions.

The first we need to address is the question of “Why” (e.g., the purpose of the national park system), the second is the question of “How”(how will the park system “l(fā)ook” in the future” and the third focuses on the “what,” the policies and management actions the park system implements when confronted with particular challenges and opportunities.

The first question to be considered, the “Why”question, which deals with the “need”, that is what is the need for a national park system; what need does society have for a system of protected areas such as national parks? The second component is the vision, which is what we expect the conditions in the park system at some point in the future to “l(fā)ook” like. A vision statement is aspirational,such as the national parks “successfully protect the country’s diverse cultural heritage”. The third component addresses planning for both parks and the system as a whole.

The question of “How” deals with the characteristics of the national park system,which usually includes ecological integrity,cultural integrity, transformative experiences for visitors, community development and some other considerations such as representativeness, and inclusiveness.

Finally, the question of “What” is about the actions we take on the ground to deal with the challenges, the first among these is capability of the organization and managers to provide good stewardship of the national park system. This includes building capacity for: 1) planning and organizational development; 2) protection from threats; 3) working with communities near the park; 4) developing a philosophy for management;5) managing visitor use.

6 納米比亞的納米布沙海世界遺產(chǎn)地里的一座建筑A building in the Namib Sand Sea World Heritage Site in Namibia

7 普利特維湖擁擠的游客The crowded visitors in Plitvice Lakes

There are three of the pathways to building the national park system.

The current notion of China’s pilot projects for park management, for example, helps not only test ideas but will eventually provide valuable input into how the three pathways are designed and implemented. It is common experience that the pathways are not smooth: there are always some difficulties in traveling along these pathways just like climbing a mountain. Sometimes it is much easier like walking in a valley.

It is also important for us to recognize that as we learn, the destination may evolve. Where we want to go may change somewhat as we test ideas and decide they need more work. For example, in the United States, over a hundred years ago when the National Park Service was established, the vision was somewhat different than the National Park Service now advocates. At that time, it was focused on protecting areas of high scenic value,now the vision emphasizes protecting ecosystems and ecosystem processes. Still the vision serves as a compass, showing us the way while a set of principles, such as provide opportunities for transformative visitor experiences or protect ecosystem processes, serve as a gyroscope to ensure we continue toward our destination.

A national park is a system. Therefore,a variety of disciplines are needed to address challenges and opportunities. No one discipline can usually solve a problem. Different disciplines are needed to work integratively to ensure that management moves toward the vision. This integration focuses on removing the “silos” of thinking that characterize many natural resource agencies. It brings together various cultures, ideas and disciplines, something important in China as it holds many different cultures.

The final item we consider is systems thinking to guide management., systems thinking as defined by Senge[1]: “is a discipline for seeing wholes. It is a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things, for seeing ‘patterns of change’ rather than static ‘snapshots’” . The “whole” (the vision for the system and individual parks) is identified first. Once that is identified, how the “parts” are going to meet that goal will be figured out. This is very similar to what an architect does: the architect, interacting with the client, defines a vision for a building (its purpose and overall look) is developed first. Then all the parts (room design, HVAC, access, lighting,etc) are designed to fit that vision.

However, it is important to stress that there are multiple pathways to achieve the vision and systems thinking is a way to consider these pathways.

8 納米布沙海世界遺產(chǎn)地里的枯死森林Dead forest in Namib Sand Sea World Heritage Site

9 加拿大北極圈The Arctic of Canada

10 華山Mount Huashan

Much of our experience in park management results from failure to consider the vision. We have often thought about the parts, such a favoring herbivores over carnivores e.g., removal of wolves from the Yellowstone ecosystem, without considering the role of wolves in ecosystem.Without understanding the system, the removal of wolves led to high and unsustainable populations of elk, which then led to significant changes in vegetation.

The following is a more detailed discussion of each of these pathways.

2.1 The “Why”: The System Vision

The question of why deals with the need for a National Park System, what it is designed to achieve and what is missing under the current status.

In the question of “Why”, the vision is important, because it is about where we want to go,where do we want to be in a certain date (Fig. 2).It is a picture of the desired future. The vision is an aspirational statement, the destination, as set of desired conditions, which often are different from the current situation.

The “why” also considers planning, which can be a complex process that is ultimately designed to put in place policies and procedures to implement the system vision[2].

While it is widely accepted that Ecological Integrity is the principal goal of the new system,there are two other goals that are also important in most national park systems. One is the visitor experience. The experience is what motivates people to visit national parks. This experience is usually centered on the opportunity to interact with an outstanding natural or cultural environment to learn about that nation’s or region’s heritage.There are other motivations involved as well, such as escape, stress release, adventure, challenge and so on. This interaction with natural and cultural heritage is fundamental to national park planning and management.

Such interaction leads to many benefits,such as learning about and appreciating the values protected, an opportunity to enhance healthy lifestyles, and economic support to local communities.

China has a unique blend of natural and cultural heritage, and in many of its national scenic spots, nature and culture are so integrated it is difficult to consider them separate ideas. Thus,China has an outstanding opportunity to show visitors how people and nature have lived together over millennia, an experience not often preserved in a national park.

One example of this interaction is located within Grand Teton National Park in the state of Wyoming in the U.S. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a small group of people settled in what is now the park and attempted to farm that area.The small community is now abandoned, but their homes and barns remain. These buildings and their history demonstrate how difficult it is for a small agricultural community to be successful in the Rocky Mountains of the U.S. The buildings that remain are protected and have become a source of attraction to visitors. Figure 3 shows one of those buildings, the Moulton Barn, which now attracts many visitors, many to photograph it against the backdrop of the Teton Mountain Range.

There are examples in other national parks,such as in Mesa Verde National Park in the state of Colorado in the U.S. This national park preserves remnant architecture and buildings of the Anasazi or Cliff Dwellers culture that existed there until about 1 000 years ago. Its disappearance remains a major anthropological and archaeological question.Huashan in China is also one example of many sites where culture and environment interact as well.

Visitation to national parks also leads to opportunities to provide for economic growth and vitality to nearby communities. Visitor expenditures are income for people and governments near national parks. This income can raise the standard of living for citizens and lead to more resilient communities, that is communities that are better prepared for events occurring at larger spatial scales, like economic changes, weather and even disasters, assuming income is used to help build community resilience.

11 大提頓國家公園的日出景象Sunrise in Grand Teton National Park

Culture is a key factor that different pathways in different countries address in their own way. So as for China, the pathway to protection must go through China’s culture and environment There is a real opportunity to demonstrate China’s cultural history that involves integration of natural and culture heritage.

2.2 The “How”: Making Major Decisions about the Characteristics of the System is the Second Pathway

In the United States, the design of national park system is greatly influenced by its developmental history. The system proceeded to develop in a relatively opportunistic and haphazardly way. Late in the 19th and early in the 20th century,decisions were made about roads, concessions and wildlife as the issues arose, not necessarily in a planned way. Thus, predators, such as the wolves of Yellowstone National Park were extirpated, without consideration of their role in the ecosystem. Grizzly bears were often seen as curiosities, to provide visitors with evening enjoyment as they pawed their way through garbage dumps within the park[3]①.Then in the 1990s, people felt that wolves should be returned to Yellowstone, a decision reflecting changing cultural values and priorities.

However, in China, there is the opportunity to initiate policies, procedures and management strategies early in the development of its national park system China has the opportunity to assess the mistakes that were made in the U.S. and other countries and build more consistent and appropriate philosophies of management in a systematic way.

By developing a vision of what the parks might be, policy makers, managers, academics and publics have an opportunity to discuss the characteristics of the park, the “how” pathway.

The notions of cultural integrity, ecological integrity and community development are important in national park systems around the world. But other characteristics are significant as well (Fig. 4). Parks provide opportunities for transformative experiences for people. Transformative experiences are those that change people. Visitors are affected through learning about natural and cultural heritage; they are inspired to learn more about heritage; and they are empowered to become more ecologically and culturally literate. When visitors experience this kind of opportunity they bring home good memories,and they influence other potential visitors through their memories.

There are some other considerations such as representativeness, inclusiveness and a culturally defined pathway. The notion of representativeness means that the National Park System, as a whole,represents the variety of ecosystems and landscapes or even cultures that exist in a particular country. The notion of inclusiveness means that the peoples of a country and their diversity are included in helping design the system and their values are represented in the system. In Canada, for example, national parks are to be representative of and relevant to the people of Canada, their values and norms including First Nations. As the result, the way of designing the national park system in Canada is much different than in the United States, even though these two countries are very close to each other. It deserves stressing that neither of these countries is right or wrong, it just depends upon the particular cultural ideals embraced by each.

2.3 The “What”: The Actions Needed to be Implemented

The question of what actions are needed in a national park system is important in ensuring that the values contained in each unit are protected. As shown in the Figure 5, there are issues of capacity,application of a management philosophy, visitor use, community impact, protection from threats and visitor experiences.

Application of a management philosophy is one of the most fundamental items in terms of protecting the natural and cultural heritage of a national park, because a national park is unique and very different than other subjects of government administration.

Communities are impacted economically,socially and culturally by designation of a nearby area. As for impact on the economy, a national park helps enhancing labor income in the community,offering opportunities for vertical movement(upward into higher paying jobs) of the labor force,and building resilience. I recognize in making this statement, that a designation of a national park may also negatively impact some places through removal of a resource for livestock, mining or forestry. Sometimes these impacts are substituted through tourism.

As for impact on culture, it brings the community greater contact with other ideas, and this may have negative impacts on the local culture.

For example, Figure. 6, shows an abandoned building in the former town of Kolmanskop located within the Namib Sand Sea World Heritage Site in Namibia. This community is an abandoned gold mining community which was started in the era when Namibia was a colony of Germany.Because the diamonds ran out and there weren't any more diamonds left in the nearby area, the community was abandoned in the 1920s. However,now this place is very popular from a photographic perspective because of the combination of the old building and the sand inside them. Thus, an abandoned community can become an attraction to visitors, again demonstrating the interaction between humans and nature.

National parks cannot isolate themselves from the impacts that occur as a result of their designation and management, such as those on communities. Therefore, managers of national parks must anticipate what those impacts may be, and then build partnerships and strategies to address those impacts.

Building Capacity is another responsibility that national parks face. It is important to build the technical and organizational capacity to plan and manage. There is a wide variety of technical skills involved in managing and planning national parks, everything from leadership and policy planning to maintaining trails. Of course, all these competencies are not held by one person. Each park needs access to these competencies though.

Managing growing levels of visitor use and tourism development is increasingly problematic yet important in achieving not only individual park goals but contributes to achieving goals articulated by the Convention on Biological Diversity known as the “Aichi Targets”[4]. In Plitvice Lakes National Park in Croatia (where I worked for several years)visitor use is particularly problematic, as shown in Figure 7, where two visitors, the man and the woman, are not very happy with their experience because of the congested trail. We should want visitors to show smiles instead of frowns.

For example, as the Figure 8 shows, an 800 year old dead forest resides in the Namib Sand Sea World Heritage Site in Namibia, one of the outstanding natural features of the world. The experience here is completely different than in Plitvice Lakes National Park so that it has to be managed differently.

National parks often provide opportunities that are transformative, experiences that people will never forget. Another example is Auyuttiq National Park lying astride the Arctic Circle in Canada. Here visitors enjoy the outstanding views of mountains,glaciers and solitude knowing that there are only a few other visitors within 30 kilometers of this area(Fig. 9). At the same time, China contains beautiful natural features combined with cultural heritage providing opportunities that the Western world knows little about (Fig. 10).

3 Conclusion

In conclusion, there is no singular pathway to developing a national park system; there are multiple pathways that are synchronized in a developmental strategy. They are integrated and it is necessary to treat these pathways as part of a system.

The vision of the national park system is needed not only to help make choices but also to inspire the staff and visitors about why there is a national park system. For example, it is stunning mountains in Grand Teton National Park that make visitors get up early in the summer at 5 a.m.and watch the incredible sunrise by its reflection on these mountains (Fig. 11).

I note here that the organization that manages the system is composed of three major elements for which there are various pathways to follow First, there are a group of interrelated components operating under a set of common policies and procedures that guide their managements.Second, the system consists of an organization of professional managers and technicians whose professional training focuses on managing protected area. Third, there are communication systems within the organization that allow for downward flow of policies and upward flow of feedback. It is quite common in bureaucracies that the policy goes down to the bottom where it’s actually applied out in the field and then the managers of those places provide feedback upward so that the central office can judge how well that policy actually works in a given circumstance.

While number of visitors and expenditures are important, it’s the management that needs to focus on providing opportunities for a transformative experience. In addition, a variety of skills conceptually and practically are also needed in planning and management.

The new national park system of China has an outstanding opportunity to develop these opportunities in a way that the world has not seen, and in a way that protects natural and cultural heritage, builds opportunities for quality visitor experiences, and enhances local economic opportunity. A great challenge and immense opportunity.

Notes：

① See McCool 1983 for a discussion of the three waves of park management in the U.S.

② All figures credit: Stephen F. McCool.