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空間導航能力性別差異的三水平元分析

2025-06-06 00:00:00薛笑然崔偉張麗
心理科學進展 2025年5期
關鍵詞:效應能力研究

1引言

空間導航(SpatialNavigation)是個體在空間中更新自身位置與方向、學習新地點的布局以及在環境中規劃并沿某一路線到達目的地的能力(Yuetal.,2021)。它涉及感知覺、情景記憶、決策等多種認知過程,可以幫助個體及時轉移住處,以補充食物、水源等生存所必需的資源,保障自身安全(Hillsetal.,2015),并滿足更高水平的行動需要(Moseramp;Moser,2016),因此是人與動物賴以生存的基本能力之一(Poulteretal.,2018)。性別是空間導航能力個體差異的重要來源。以往相當多的研究發現男性的空間導航能力優于女性(例如Merrill etal.,2016;Nazareth etal.,2018;Yu etal.,2021;Zhouetal.,2020),然而亦有一部分研究并未發現男女差異(例如Learmonthetal.,2008;Liaoamp;Dong,2017;Vieitesetal.,2020),甚至還有研究發現女性的空間導航能力優于男性(例如Bocchietal.,2020)。在這些研究中,性別往往與研究設計等因素交互作用,共同影響空間導航能力。因此,有必要系統探究空間導航能力的性別差異,并尋找性別差異的潛在影響因素。

1.1空間導航能力的性別差異

空間能力一直被認為是男女性在所有認知能力中差異最大的(Halpern,2011)。雖然許多領域中的性別差異正逐漸消失或減少,但空間能力的性別差異始終存在(Hyde,2005;Martensamp;Antonenko,2012)。早年,Linn和Petersen(1985)報告男性與女性在空間任務上的差異效應量為0.73,這一差異在過去幾十年間并沒有明顯改變(Maedaamp;Yoon,2013),近20年來的研究同樣表明男性有更好的空間能力(例如Laueretal.,2019;Leeetal.,2019;Yuanetal.,2019)。基于解決空間問題時涉及的不同參考框架,空間能力可分為小尺度和大尺度兩類(Yuanetal.,2019),前者主要基于環境中心的表征,典型任務如心理旋轉;后者主要基于自我中心的表征,典型任務如空間導航。

男性的小尺度空間能力比如心理旋轉明顯優于女性,這一結論已在相關研究中得到廣泛支持,然而大尺度的空間導航能力是否存在顯著的性別差異尚無定論。根據Silverman和Eals(1992)的狩獵者-采集者理論,男女性在大尺度空間能力上存在性別差異,并且屬于質的差異而非量的不同。這一差異的關鍵影響因素是人類祖先的原始分工,其中男性主要扮演狩獵者的角色,負責長途狩獵,女性則扮演采集者的角色,負責采集作物和資源,這兩種空間活動的差異逐漸導致了男女性空間能力的差異。目前,該理論得到了不少研究的支持,這些研究基本發現男性比女性表現出更強的空間導航能力(例如Booneetal.,2018;Munionetal.,2019;Yuetal.,2021),但性別差異的程度不盡相同(例如Coutrotetal.,2018;Munionetal.,2019)。還有一些研究并未發現性別差異,如要求被試在包含多個地標的虛擬環境中進行導航(Andersenetal.,2012),或通過指向任務測量個體的空間導航能力(Arnoldetal.,2013;Hundamp;Padgitt,201O;Labateetal.,2014;Marchetteetal.,2011;Postma et al.,2012)。

1.2空間導航能力性別差異的調節變量

空間導航能力的性別差異沒有一致結論的現象背后,可能是某些因素調節了空間導航能力性別差異的大小。

(1)年齡。年齡與空間導航能力的性別差異具有緊密聯系。大多數對空間導航能力性別差異起點的研究聚焦在6至12歲的學齡期,這一時期的兒童表現出明顯的性別分化(Hemmeretal.,2013;León etal.,2014;Merrilletal.,2016)。根據Nazareth等(2018)的研究,12歲是一個過渡年齡,此時青少年開始在大尺度的空間導航任務中表現出與成人相似的熟練程度,且男性表現出更好的空間導航能力。在步入青春期及長大成人后,男女性的空間導航能力依然表現出明顯差異(Liuetal..2011;Sneideretal.,2015;Yuetal.,2021)。對學前期兒童空間導航能力性別差異的研究相對較少,且結論并不一致。如Sorrentino等(2019)的研究發現4至6歲的男孩在完成搜索桶任務時搜索效率和完整度都優于女生。然而,在涉及幾何線索和單一地標的空間定向測試中,3至6歲的兒童未表現出性別差異(Learmonthetal.,20o8;Vieitesetal..2020)。因此,年齡可能是影響空間導航能力性別差異的重要調節變量。

(2)地區。地區是影響空間導航能力的重要因素,不同地區的居民受社會文化等因素影響而可能偏好不同的導航策略,發展不同程度的空間導航能力(Goeke etal.,2015;Schug,2016a)。盡管尚未有跨文化研究直接發現地區對空間導航能力性別差異的影響,但依據霍夫斯泰德的文化維度理論(Hofstede,1984),社會文化中的男性化與女性化、集體主義與個體主義等文化特征會共同塑造人們對性別角色的認知和行為期望,因而可能導致男女性空間導航能力的地域差異性。綜述以往研究,大多數來自美國和歐洲的研究都發現了男性在空間導航能力上的顯著優勢,而許多其他地區的研究卻未觀察到這一差異。例如,來自中國的研究在使用指向任務、物體定位、距離估計任務測量空間導航能力時均未發現顯著性別差異(趙夢雅,肖承麗,2019;Liaoamp;Dong,2017),甚至在路徑重走任務中發現女性空間導航能力表現優于男性(趙夢雅,肖承麗,2019)。來自土耳其(Memikogluamp;Demirkan2020)和墨西哥的研究(Woolleyetal.,2010)同樣未發現空間導航能力的性別差異。因此本研究推測,地區可能是影響空間導航能力性別差異的潛在調節變量。

(3)研究設計特征。空間導航任務的研究設計和評估指標也可能成為性別差異的異質性來源。由于空間導航能力的測量任務和測量指標類別豐富,不同研究者可能使用不同任務(如路線學習與重走任務、目標指向任務、虛擬水迷宮任務)和測量指標(如正確率、反應時、總距離、偏差程度)測量空間導航能力,這可能導致性別差異的大小甚至方向不同。例如,在二維矩陣導航任務中,女性的反應時更快,而在真實駕駛場景識別任務中,男性的準確率更高(Kimetal.,2007);一項元分析也揭示了指向和回憶任務比距離估計任務所測得的性別差異更大(Nazarethetal.,2019)。男女性在空間導航過程中的表征方式也有所不同,當可以自由選擇表征方式時,男性主要進行環境中心表征,綜合使用環境線索和路標線索,而女性主要進行自我中心表征,偏好使用路標線索進行導航(Lavenexamp;Lavenex,201o;Rosenthal et al.,2012),這也可能導致性別差異。此外,空間導航任務設計中的測試場景、輔助裝備、任務環境都可能成為影響空間導航能力性別差異的潛在因素。例如,同樣是使用指向任務,虛擬環境中的指向任務大多具有穩定的性別差異(Castellietal.,2008;Perssonetal.,2013),而真實環境中的指向任務結論不一(Labateet al.,2014;Marchetteetal.,2011;Meneghettietal.,2011);與使用電子設備不同,許多使用紙筆作為輔助裝備(Kastensetal.,2007;Newetal.,2007)或不提供輔助裝備(Bocchietal.,2020;Piccardietal.,2014)的研究并未發現性別差異;大多數室外研究都發現了顯著的性別差異,而Wang等人(2018)的室內研究則并未發現男女性在自我定位、路線閱讀和路線跟隨方面的能力差異。

1.3 研究目標

綜上所述,以往大量研究考察了空間導航能力的性別差異,但研究結論并不一致。因此,空間導航能力是否存在性別差異還有待澄清。如果存在差異,方向是怎樣的,是否受被試特征、研究設計等因素影響?本研究的第一個目標是納入以往有關空間導航能力與性別關系的研究,通過三水平元分析探究男女性在空間導航能力方面是否存在顯著差異。基于以往多數研究,本研究推測:空間導航能力性別差異顯著,總體而言,男性的空間導航能力強于女性。

本研究的第二個目標是分析調節因素對性別與空間導航能力關系的影響。基于以往研究結果,本研究推測:個體變量(年齡和地區)和任務變量(表征方式、時間限制、任務環境、測試場景、輔助裝備、任務類型、測量指標)均能夠調節空間導航能力與性別的關系。

2方法

2.1文獻檢索與篩選

文獻檢索:元分析中的所有文章通過搜索關鍵詞進行檢索。搜索關鍵詞包括:spatialnavigationwayfinding, spatial orientation, cognitive map, spatialrepresentation,spatialcognition,spatial explorationsenseofdirection。本研究通過多個數據庫進行檢索,以確保文獻的全面性和系統性,所用中文數據庫包括:中國知網(CNKI、萬方、維普,英文數據庫包括:Webof Science、PubMed、EBSCO、PsyArXiv,并結合手動檢索以補充遺漏的相關文獻。檢索過程如下:(1)通過檢索關鍵詞,查找文獻并閱讀摘要;(2)若摘要表明文獻與本研究主題相關,則閱讀文獻全文; (3)若摘要表明文獻與主題相關,但無法獲取全文,則通過郵件向通訊作者尋求幫助。

篩選標準:(1)研究必須包含至少一種空間導航任務,排除自我報告或他人報告(調查)的結果;(2)必須同時收集男性和女性的數據;(3)必須報告所測量空間導航任務和性別的個數、平均數、標準差;(4)研究納入被試的年齡在0至85歲之間;(5)文獻語言為中文或英語;(6不納入回歸分析、結構方程模型或其他數據分析方法得出的數據。最終得到符合要求的文獻共173篇,其中中文文獻8篇,外文文獻165篇,篩選過程詳見圖1(n代表數量)。

圖1文獻篩選流程

2.2 文獻特征編碼

根據Lipsey和Wilson (2001)的方法對文獻數據進行編碼:(1)被試年齡(嬰幼兒期0至4歲vs兒童期4至12歲vs.青少年期12至18歲Vs.成年早期18至40歲vs.成年中期40至65歲vs.成年晚期65歲以上 vs.跨年齡);(2)地區(亞洲 vs.歐洲vs.大洋洲 vs.北美洲 vs.南美洲 vs.跨國):(3)表征方式(自我中心Vs.環境中心);(4)時間限制(限時Vs.不限時);(5)任務環境(室內vs.室外Vs水迷宮 vs.室內-室外);(6)測試場景(真實場景Vs.虛擬場景);(7)輔助裝備(電子設備Vs.書寫工具vs.無設備);(8)任務類型(閉環vs.地圖繪制vs.地圖使用vs.路標再認記憶vs.路線描述vs.路線學習與重走vs.目標指向vs.虛擬水迷宮);(9)測量指標(反應時vs.總距離vs.正確率 vs.速度 vs.偏差程度 vs.效率)。

在編碼過程中,主要遵循以下原則: (1)每一個獨立樣本編碼為一個效應值,如果同時報告了多個獨立樣本,則分別編碼;(2)若同一項研究對不同年齡段的被試分別報告其結果,則分別編碼;(③)若研究為縱向研究,則對每次結果分別編碼。編碼由兩位評分者獨立完成,編碼不一致時,由兩位評分者重新閱讀原始文獻,并在共同討論后統一結果。最終的編碼一致性 k 值分別為:(1)被試年齡: k = 1 . 0 0 ;(2)地區: k = 1 . 0 0 ;(3)表征方式:k = 0 . 9 4 (4時間限制: k = 0 . 9 8 ;(5)任務環境: k = 0.98;(6測試場景: k = 0 . 9 5 ;(7輔助裝備: k = 0 . 9 8 (8)任務類型: k = 0 . 9 8 ;(9)測量指標: k = 0 . 9 8 。

2.3 元分析過程

2.3.1 三水平元分析的效應量計算

本研究選取標準化均數差(standardizedmeandifference,SMD)Cohen's d 作為效應量。由于空間導航能力的測量方法和指標種類頗多,許多文獻包含多個效應量,導致效應量之間存在依賴性,與傳統元分析方法認為效應量相互獨立的假設不符,故采用三水平元分析方法,通過補充研究內方差來考慮效應量之間的依賴性(Cheung,2014)總方差來源被分解為抽樣方差(水平1)、研究內方差(水平2)、研究間方差(水平3)(Hoxetal.,2017)。相較于傳統方法,三水平元分析更適合復雜數據結構的處理,不僅解決了效應量不獨立的問題,還在保留原始文獻信息完整性的同時,有效提升了統計效率和穩健性(Cheung,2019)。

2.3.2 數據處理與分析

采用Rx644.2.2-win版本的metafor包進行三水平元分析(Viechtbauer,201O),參照Assink和Wibbelink(2016)以及Harrer等人(2021)的教程編寫R語法。首先參照Cheung(2014)的方法對抽樣方差(水平1)進行估計,然后對研究內方差(水平2)和研究間方差(水平3)進行單側對數似然比檢驗。若研究內方差和研究間方差顯著,則進一步進行調節效應檢驗以確定異質性的來源(Gaoetal.,2017)。

2.3.3 研究特征

當前元分析包括173項研究,共有372個獨立效應量,26604名被試。在同一項研究中,效應量數最少為1,最多為7,納人文獻的發表時間為2007年至2023年。

2.3.4 發表偏倚檢驗

漏斗圖上代表效應量的點基本分布在平均效應量的兩側且位于頂端,但Begg 檢驗 p = 0.086)和Egger檢驗 ( t = 4 . 3 9 p lt; 0 . 0 0 1 都表明可能存在一定程度的發表偏倚。為進一步評估發表偏倚的影響,采用了Duval和Tweedie(2000)的Trim-and-Fil1方法,該方法估計可能存在93項缺失研究,補充這些研究后效應量略微降低(從0.39降至0.23),但調整后效應量仍顯著 ( p lt; 0 . 0 0 1 9 5 % CI[0.18,0.28]),即發表偏倚對空間導航能力與性別關系的總效應影響是有限的,元分析結果依然具有穩健性(見圖2)。

3結果

3.1空間導航能力性別差異的主效應檢驗

隨機效應模型假設,每個單獨研究的效應量并非來源于完全相同的總體,而是圍繞一個總體效應的分布,這意味著個體研究的效應量可能因種種差異(如被試特征、研究方法、測量工具、研究情境等)而有所不同,而隨機效應模型允許這些差異作為系統變異的一部分進入模型。因此,本研究選擇了隨機效應模型進行主效應檢驗。

主效應檢驗結果表明,男女性空間導航能力存在顯著差異 ( d = 0 . 3 9 p lt; 0 . 0 0 1 , 9 5 % CI[0.33,0.46]),這一結論符合研究假設。此外,采用單側對數似然比檢驗法確定研究內方差和研究間方差的顯著性,結果表明,本研究的研究內方差 ( p lt; 0.001)和研究間方差 ( p lt; 0 . 0 0 1 ) 均存在顯著差異。在總方差來源中,抽樣方差為 1 8 . 6 6 % 。研究內方差為

圖2效應量 d 分布的漏斗圖

注:圖中 軸為Cohen's d 效應量,y軸為每個效應量對應的標準誤。左圖為原始漏斗圖,表示未調整的效應量分布;右圖為經過Trim-and-Fill方法調整后的漏斗圖,其中空心點代表通過調整方法補充的潛在缺失研究。

1 1 . 9 4 % ,研究間方差為 6 9 . 4 0 % 。每個獨立樣本的效應量及總體效應量的森林圖見網絡版附錄。因此,進行調節效應檢驗,以確認男女性空間導航能力的差異來源。

3.2空間導航能力性別差異的調節效應檢驗

空間導航能力性別差異的調節效應檢驗結果如表1所示。結果表明:(1)年齡具有顯著的調節效應, F ( 6 , 3 6 1 ) = 2 . 9 1 p = 0 . 0 0 9 ,在4至65歲的群體及跨年齡研究中,空間導航能力的性別差異顯著存在,男性優勢明顯。在嬰幼兒期(0至4歲)和成年晚期(65歲以上),未發現顯著的性別差異;(2)表征方式具有邊緣顯著的調節效應, F ( 1 , 3 7 0 ) = 3.44, p = 0 . 0 6 4 ,與自我中心的表征方式相比,男女性被要求使用環境中心的表征方式時的空間導航能力差異更大;(③時間限制具有邊緣顯著的調節效應: F ( 1 , 3 7 0 ) = 3 . 4 2 p = 0 . 0 6 5 ,與不限時完成空間導航任務相比,男女性在有時間限制的空間導航任務中表現出更大的能力差異;(4)任務環境具有顯著的調節效應, p = 0.022,與室內測試相比,男女性在完成水迷宮任務時表現出更大的空間導航能力差異。而在室內一室外雙重測試條件下,未發現性別差異;(5)測試場景具有顯著的調節效應, F ( 1 , 3 7 0 ) = 9 . 7 4 , p = 0.002,與真實場景相比,男女性在視頻場景中的空間導航能力差異更大;(6輔助裝備具有顯著的調節效應, F ( 2 , 3 6 9 ) = 7 . 4 1 , p lt; 0 . 0 0 1 ,男女性在使用電子設備、紙筆工具時表現出性別差異,而不使用輔助設備時則無性別差異。與假設不一致的是,在以下變量中并沒有發現顯著的調節效應:(1)地區: F ( 6 , 3 6 5 ) = 0 . 5 3 p = 0 . 7 8 6 (2)任務類型: F ( 7 , 3 6 4 ) = 1 . 1 7 , p = 0 . 3 2 2 ;(3)測量指標:F ( 5 , 3 6 6 ) = 1 . 9 2 , p = 0 . 0 9 1 。

表1調節效應檢驗結果
續表
注:*代表 p lt; 0 . 0 5 ,**代表 p lt; 0 . 0 1 ,***代表 p lt; 0 . 0 0 1 ,下同。

3.3調節變量的多重回歸分析

為排除調節變量之間的共線性,根據Assink和Wibbelink(2016)的方法,對顯著的調節變量進行多重回歸分析。以年齡(嬰幼兒期,0至4歲)、任務環境(室內)、表征方式(環境中心)、時間限制(不限時)、測試場景(真實場景)、輔助裝備(電子設備)為參照變量,結果顯示至少有一個調節變量的回歸系數顯著偏離零(見表2),表明這些變量在控制其他調節變量的共線性影響后,對結果變量產生了獨立的顯著影響,進一步驗證了其在空間導航能力中的獨立調節作用。

4討論

本研究采用三水平元分析的方法,整合了2007年至2023年間的173篇有關空間導航能力的原始文獻,以探究空間導航能力是否存在性別差異,并進一步考察哪些變量調節了空間導航能力與性別的關系。總體而言,空間導航能力存在性別差異,男性的空間導航能力更強。然而在嬰幼兒期(0至4歲)和成年晚期(65歲以上)的人群中,未發現顯著的性別差異;在室內-室外雙重測試條件和個體不使用任何輔助設備參與測試的條件下,也未觀察到性別差異。

4.1空間導航能力的性別差異

本研究結果首先證實了空間導航能力存在性別差異,男性的空間導航能力優于女性,這一現象在4至65歲個體中普遍存在,且在大多數測試條件下具有顯著體現。該結論與Nazareth等人(2019)的結論一致,可能與心理、生物、社會文化三方面的影響有關。

以往研究發現了多個心理因素對空間導航能力性別差異的潛在影響。空間焦慮是空間導航過程中常見的消極情緒,會負向預測個體的空間導航能力(vanderHametal.,202O),且在女性中更為常見(Huangamp;Voyer,2017)。女性在時間限制條件下,可能產生更高的空間焦慮,這種負性情緒分散了認知資源,降低了對環境信息的加工能力(Norietal.,2009;Voyer,2011),因此空間導航表現受阻,此外,Zeng等人的研究(2012)發現,男女性的移動策略存在差異,男性更看重速度而非移動的準確性,而女性更為謹慎,會通過犧牲速度來保證準確性,這種決策也會影響男女性的空間導航表現。

進化和生物學的視角也可以解釋空間導航能力的性別差異。早期研究聚焦于驗證狩獵者-采集者理論,發現當身處于森林時,男性能夠以更短的路線回到出發點(Moffatetal.,1998),這一過程涉及路線學習、路徑整合、方位判斷等能力,均有助于男性用長矛射中獵物,并盡快將捕獲的獵物帶回部落;而女性則比男性具有更大的空間視野(Burg,1968)、更快的空間感知速度(Kimura,1999)和更強的物品定位記憶(Silvermanetal.,2007),這可能源于采集任務中的進化適應。上述結論說明了進化過程中的兩性勞動分工可能對男女性的空間導航能力具有不同影響。神經生物學的研究則基于男女性大腦結構和功能差異進行了解釋。海馬-內嗅皮層導航系統是核心的導航環路(王琳,王亮,2017),其神經元能夠通過相位進動(phaseprecession)表征空間位置,并參與非空間任務的信息編碼,其中海馬的位置細胞會在個體處于特定位置時激活,以形成環境的認知地圖(Marchetteetal.,2011),內嗅皮層的網格細胞和頭方向細胞分別提供空間距離度量和方向信息(Hafting et al.,2005;Long et al.,2022,2024)。而在Long和Zhang (2021)在軀體感覺皮層中發現的新導航系統中,神經元的功能與經典系統類似。這些系統的結構和功能差異為解釋男女性空間導航的認知神經差異提供了基礎,例如男女性在完成空間導航任務時均使用大面積腦區,但男性更多依賴海馬體(Gron et al.,2000;Kong et al.,2017);男性在環境中心導航中激活更多的頂葉和前額葉.而女性在自我中心導航中后部腦區激活更強(Noachtaretal.,2022)。睪酮素也可能影響空間導航能力的性別差異,有研究發現女性內源性睪酮水平與空間導航能力顯著正相關,而這一相關性在男性中并不顯著(Burkitt etal.,2007);如果向女性注射睪酮素,則女性的內側顳葉活性得到增強,空間導航表現有所提升(Pintzkaetal.,2016)。目前對人類空間導航能力的神經生物學研究仍處于探索階段,未來研究有必要結合神經成像技術,深入探討不同空間導航系統在男女性中的功能差異,從而加深對大腦如何通過多種并行系統應對復雜導航任務的理解,為考察性別差異提供新的視角。

表2調節變量的多重回歸分析

社會文化對男女性空間導航能力的影響也不可忽視。根據社會認知理論(Busseyamp;Bandura,1999),個體性別行為的發展不僅受進化生物學影響,還受到環境創新的塑造,會通過觀察、經驗和信息獲取,形成對性別行為后果的認知,并在自我調節系統的作用下進一步影響性別行為。例如,“男主外,女主內\"的刻板印象是人類社會中根深蒂固的觀念之一,強化了社會文化對性別角色的期待(Ellemers,2018)。這一觀念與\"男性空間導航能力優于女性\"的刻板印象相互關聯,“男主外\"賦予男性更強的外部探索與導航角色,從而鞏固了對男性在空間任務中表現更優的期待,“女主內”則限制了女性對空間導航能力的認知與實踐。這種性別刻板印象通過個體與社會文化的互動被內化,影響了男女性的自我調節系統和空間導航能力的發展。此外,一些傳統的空間能力測試設計可能在無意間放大性別差異,強化了被試對性別空間刻板印象的認同,形成教育和社會互動中不斷被重復和強化的惡性循環(Bartlettamp;Camba,2023)。長此以往,即使男女性最初在空間導航能力上不存在差異,也會在社會文化潛移默化的影響下產生差異。有趣的是,Hults等人(2024)綜述了多項研究,指出在那些不存在“男主外,女主內”分工模式的狩獵采集文化中,當男性和女性從事類似的空間任務時,性別差異幾乎消失(Janget al.,2019;Trumbleetal.,2016),印證了上述觀點,即空間導航能力的性別差異并非普遍存在,而是高度依賴于社會文化背景。

4.2空間導航能力性別差異的調節因素

本研究通過三水平元分析對空間導航能力的性別差異進行了調節效應檢驗,以檢驗被試個體因素和研究設計因素是否會影響空間導航能力的性別差異。結果表明,年齡、表征方式、時間限制、任務環境、測試場景和輔助裝備均發揮調節作用,而地區、任務類型、測量指標則不具有調節作用。

年齡是影響空間導航性別差異的重要因素。元分析結果表明嬰幼兒期(0至4歲)和成年晚期(65歲以上)個體的空間導航能力不存在性別差異,而4至65歲的個體存在空間導航能力的性別差異。4歲前兒童的空間導航能力尚處于初步發展階段,受性別的社會化影響有限,而在進入幼兒期后,社會文化開始對性別角色的塑造產生更大影響。書籍、媒體和日常生活中存在諸多性別刻板印象,如Berry和Wilkins(2017)發現在1930至2017年出版的103本兒童書籍中,男性角色占據主導地位,且常被描繪為具有領導力、勇敢和冒險精神的,這些特質往往與空間導航所需的尋路、定向等能力緊密相連。相反,很多女性角色被刻畫為情緒化或表現出不安全感,可能會削弱女孩們對空間導航活動的興趣、主動探索性和對空間導航能力的自我認知,進而導致男女性空間導航能力的發展開始分化。而當個體步入成年晚期時,男女性的空間導航能力均會大幅下降(Coutrotetal.,2022),表現出低速度和低準確性(Merhavamp;Wolbers,2019;Tailladeetal.,2016;Zhongamp;Moffat,2016),這種能力的全面下降可能縮小甚至消除了性別差異,因此聚焦成年晚期的研究往往未能觀測到空間導航能力的性別差異。

表征方式能夠調節空間導航能力的性別差異相較于環境中心的表征方式,個體在使用自我中心的表征方式時性別差異縮小。這一結論與假設及以往研究結論一致,即男性的環境中心表征能力強于女性(Hundamp;Minarik,20o6;Munionetal.,2019),在使用環境中心的表征方式進行空間導航時更具優勢。具體而言,男性在學習空間環境時傾向于關注整體、分析地理分布、記憶物體間關系(Lithfousetal.,2013),女性則更依賴局部環境信息,注重主客體間的關系(Colucciaetal.,2007)。而當要求被試使用自我中心的表征方式進行空間導航時,男性環境中心表征的優勢被抑制,因而和女性的導航表現差距縮小。

時間限制是空間導航能力性別差異的調節因素,在不限制時間的條件下,男女性的性別差異縮小,這可能與女性在空間導航過程普遍較高的焦慮感有關(Lyonsetal.,2018),時間壓力會加劇女性的焦慮,從而影響方向感和尋路表現(Kremmyda et al.,2016; Mendez-Lopez et al.,2020),而沒有時間限制則有助于緩解壓力,促進她們的空間導航表現。

任務環境、測試場景、輔助裝備均能夠調節性別與空間導航能力的關系。研究結果發現,性別差異在室外環境中最大,在室內-室外雙重測試條件下不顯著;真實場景的性別差異小于視頻場景;使用電子設備時性別差異最大,不使用任何輔助裝備時則無顯著性別差異。綜上可知,男女性在完成具有更高生態學效度的空間導航任務時表現更為接近,與以往觀點一致(Minamp;Ha,2021),這可能是由于男性的電子游戲經驗更豐富對電子設備的使用更熟悉。此外,男性在具有有限線索的環境中更具有優勢,而在含有豐富近端線索的導航任務中性別差異不再顯著(Barkleyamp;Gabriel,2007)。將空間導航測試設置在室外環境、真實場景能夠給個體提供豐富的感官信息和環境線索,使個體能夠更全面地感知和理解空間關系,這削弱了男性的空間導航優勢,使女性更自然地運用空間導航能力,因此性別差異減小;而當在室內環境、視頻場景進行導航能力測試時,男性的優勢則使他們具有更好的表現。上述結論提示研究者在任務設計時重視環境真實性可能帶來的影響。近年來日益普及的虛擬現實技術(VR)為評估人類空間導航提供了新工具。VR環境可以操縱實驗條件,控制無關變量,被試的學習機制也與真實環境中無異(Weisbergetal.,2014),已被證實所測空間導航可以預測真實環境的空間導航(Santosetal.,2008),且兩者具有良好的可復制性(Lloydetal.,2009)。未來研究可逐漸將桌面空間導航任務轉向VR室外導航,模擬真實生活中的導航體驗的真實感受,提升研究的生態學效度。

地區未影響男女性的空間導航能力,來自各個大洲的被試均在空間導航任務中表現出了顯著的男性優勢。一方面,可能是由于以往研究主要聚焦于亞洲、歐洲、北美洲,對南美洲、大洋洲、非洲缺乏關注,尤其是對貧困地區的研究不足,導致被試來源分布不均。另一方面,經濟條件和生活環境作為更微觀的因素,可能通過提供資源和挑戰來調節男女性的空間導航能力差異。研究表明,空間導航能力與國家GDP和教育水平正相關(Coutrotetal.,2018)。在資源豐富的地區,男女均有更多接觸科技與教育的機會,而在貧困地區,女性因性別角色限制在資源獲取和能力發展上受阻(Amoo et al.,2019;McKinney et al.,2017)。此外,空間環境能夠驅動空間能力的發展(Prudenetal.,2011,2020),因此可能影響空間導航能力。Coutrot等(2022)的全球研究印證了這一點,發現成長于復雜環境(如鄉村)的人群導航能力優于城市居民,尤其在現代化國家更為明顯,可能源于鄉村的非規則地形和復雜布局提供了更多空間挑戰,而城市的網格化結構減少了尋路機會。男女性在成長過程中的活動空間也往往不同,男性更有可能被家長允許外出游戲,且更傾向于開展具有探索性的活動,因此在童年期具有更高的外出頻次、更遠的出行距離和探索廣度,積累了更多空間線索(Schug,2016a,2016b),而女性接觸復雜空間環境的機會較少。Utta1等人(2013)的研究證實了當女性獲得與男性相同的探索機會時,其空間定向能力可與男性持平。這些證據均表明,生活環境和經濟條件可能通過與性別相互作用,影響空間導航能力的性別差異。未來研究應進一步聚焦這些因素,探索如何通過干預措施縮小差異。

空間導航能力的性別差異在不同任務類型和測量指標下均保持穩定,表明其評估的可靠性。然而,實際生活中的空間環境線索紛繁復雜,遠非實驗室環境中簡化的任務所能完全涵蓋,提示未來需探索更貼近現實的評估方法。近年來,VR和移動設備等新興技術為導航能力評估帶來了革新,VR可提供高沉浸感和逼真度的測試環境,移動設備則通過實時捕捉地理信息與空間布局,實現個性化和動態評估(Coutrot et al.,2022;Dong et al.,2022)。這些技術有效縮小了實驗室與現實生活的差距,有助于在更真實的條件下測量空間導航能力。

4.3研究意義、局限性與未來展望

本研究通過三水平元分析探討了空間導航能力的性別差異及調節因素,澄清了目前關于空間導航能力是否存在性別差異的爭議,確認了空間導航能力的男性優勢現象,并識別了影響性別差異的調節變量。這為未來研究提供了重要啟示,即應納入更多具有代表性的人群,并選取更加貼近真實環境的測量方式,以深人揭示空間導航能力與性別的關系。在實踐層面,空間導航能力是個體應對現實生活復雜任務和職業發展的重要技能,對促進男女在STEM領域的平等參與具有積極意義。教育工作者應注重培養學生的空間導航能力,尤其是通過針對性教學和實踐活動,提升女性應對導航任務的信心和能力。這不僅有助于縮小性別差異,還能增強學生在真實環境中解決空間問題的能力,推動教育公平與社會發展。

本研究也存在一定的不足。首先,本研究所納入的文獻雖然包含中文和英文發表的文章,但是由數據來源所帶來的語言偏差和文化代表性問題仍然存在,影響了地區變量調節作用的分析及社會文化對空間導航能力影響的理解。未來研究應納入更多語言的文獻,以涵蓋更廣泛的文化群體提升研究的多樣性與普適性。其次,本研究使用了多種檢驗評估發表偏倚,并使用Trim-and-Fill法減少偏倚的影響,盡管調整后效應量的顯著表明研究結論具有穩健性,但發表偏倚仍可能影響效應量估計。未來研究有必要納入未發表或難以獲得的數據,以進一步降低偏倚的影響。最后,由于空間導航性別差異領域的研究關注的群體具有較大異質性,測量工具多樣,在亞組分析時個別亞組之間效應值個數差異較大,可能影響結果的準確性和普遍性。未來可通過納入更多文獻,尤其是關注個體生命早期的性別研究,驗證亞組分析結果的穩健性,同時細化研究對象分類,提升亞組內的同質性,以提高結果的準確性和可靠性。

5結論

本研究采用三水平元分析的方法,整合了2007年至2023年間的173篇有關空間導航能力的原始文獻,結果證實了男性的空間導航能力優于女性。進一步發現:年齡對性別差異的調節作用顯著,4至65歲男性的空間導航能力優于女性,嬰幼兒期和成年晚期的男女性空間導航能力無顯著差異;研究設計中的表征方式、時間限制、任務環境、測試場景、輔助裝備也能發揮調節作用,在自我中心的表征方式、不限時的任務條件、室內、真實場景、使用紙筆工具或不使用輔助裝備時性別差異較小;地區、任務類型、測量指標等因素不發揮調節作用。

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A three-level meta-analysis of gender differences in spatial navigation ability

XUEXiaoran1,CUIWei1,ZHANGLi2 ( FacultyofPsychology,Beijing Normal University,Beijing 10o875,China) ( SchoolofSociologyandPsychologyCentralUniversityofFinanceandEconomics,Beiingoo8,China)

Abstract: Spatial navigation is an essential cognitive ability,yet the existence and extent of gender differences in this domain remain contentious. A there-level meta-analysis was conducted,synthesizing data from173 studies, with a total of 372 independent effect sizes and 26604 participants.The results indicated that spatial navigation ability generally exhibited gender differences, with males having stronger spatial navigation ability than females.However,these diferences were influenced by various factors,including age,representation mode,time constraints,task environment, test scene,and auxiliary equipment. Specifically, gender diferences in spatial navigation ability were not significant among infants and toddlers, in late adulthood,under dual indoor-outdoor testing conditions,or in the absence ofauxiliary devices.These results provide a comprehensive analysis of gender differences in spatial navigation ability,identify key moderating variables,and offer evidence-based recommendations for educational practices aimed at reducing gender disparities in this domain.

Keywords: spatial navigation, gender differences, there-level meta-analysis,moderating effect

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