China’s Africa Policy: the Interplay Between Continent-Based Policy and Global Strategy

Valerie Hansen， a historian of Yale University， put forward in the book The Year 1000： When Explorers Connected the World and Globalization Began that the beginning of globalization was marked by the Vikings’ landing in North America in A.D. 1000. Why cannot the global expansion and continuous migration of Africans be defined as globalization？ Why cannot the expansion of Arabs to West Asia， North Africa and Southern Europe in the 7th to 8th Century be regarded as globalization？ The “Eurocentrism” revealed in this research needs to be dealt with reflection and critique. Be it from the process of human development or geopolitical reality， Africa plays an important role in international affairs. China has always attached great importance to the development of its relations with Africa from a strategic perspective. The principles of sincerity， real results， amity and good faith， and pursuing the greater good and shared interests reflect the essence of China-Africa relations. With great changes in the world order， the relationship between China’s Africa policy and global strategy will be further enhanced.

Africa’s Status and Influence in the World

Geographically， North Africa， Sahel， Horn of Africa， Gulf of Guinea， Southern Africa and other regions all have important geopolitical significance. There are channels connecting East and West such as Gibraltar Strait， Mande Strait and Suez Canal， as well as Mozambique Channel， Cape of Good Hope and islands such as Madagascar linking the Atlantic Ocean with Indian Ocean， which determines Africa strategic impact on “two oceans and three seas” （Atlantic Ocean， Indian Ocean， Mediterranean Sea， Red Sea and Arabian Sea）. Take the Sahel as an example， it is 3，800 kilometers long and home to 10 countries including Senegal， Mauritania and Mali， etc.. In 2014， Burkina Faso， Chad， Mali， Mauritania and Niger established the Group of Five for the Sahel， which is dedicated to promoting regional development and cooperation. The region is an important commercial hub and a route for ethnic migration， religious communication and cultural exchange. The United States and Europe have either trained troops in the Sahel or intervened in the form of military bases or aid.

Christianity， Islam and indigenous religions each has followers of about one-third of Africa’s total population， and there are migrated Hindus and Buddhists. There are about 667 million Christians， and Islamic states are concentrated in West Africa and North Africa. So， is the relationship between religions harmonious or confrontational？ Senegal is one of the typical examples of religious harmony. More than 90% of its population are Muslims. Mr. Senghor， the first president of the Republic of Senegal， was a Catholic. The country however enjoyed political stability and economic development during his presidency.

Africa is rich in mineral resources， with a variety of mineral reserves ranking first in the world. Rich in oil and natural gas， Libya， Nigeria， Algeria， South Sudan and Angola account for more than 90% of the continent’s oil reserves. And 91.5% of natural gas is located in Algeria， Egypt， Libya and Nigeria. Forests account for 21% of the total area， and there are more than 40，000 kinds of plants. Grassland accounts for 27% of the total area， topping all continents in the world. Fishery resources are concentrated in some coastal countries， among which Morocco ranks first in Africa and 13th in the world in fishery production.

European capitalism embodied by the UK laid the foundation for the colonial system in modern times， and the exploitation of African colonies catalyzed the global expansion of capitalism. These former suzerains are still trying to keep hold of their influence. France has military bases in countries such as Chad and sent troops to intervene in regional conflicts in case of “emergency”. Diego Garcia in Chagos Archipelago is a UK colony and leased to the United States to build a military base in the Indian Ocean. Mauritius’ demand for the UK to return Chagos Archipelago is met with wide international support， but the UK refused to cede sovereignty， turning a blind eye to the expiration of the UN deadline.

Africa’s influence on international politics is reflected in the distribution of political camps， the international stand of OAU/AU， its strategic position and its increasingly prominent independence in international affairs. When China returned to the United Nations， most affirmative votes were from African countries. The United States established the US Africa Command in 2007， and most African countries have reservations about it. The Union the Arab Maghreb， the Southern African Development Community， Uganda， Nigeria， South Africa and Libya all oppose the United States building military bases in Africa. The United States consequently had to set up its Africa Command in Germany.

The AU has outstanding consistency in dealing with internal affairs in Africa and international issues. The border demarcation of African countries is one of the consequences of colonial rule. African political leaders have been paying close attention to the border issue as a “serious and permanent factor of discord” since independence. The Charter of the Organization of African Unity clearly stipulates “respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each State and its inalienable right to independent existence ... that member States shall guarantee to resolve all disputes between them by peaceful means ... and that all member States guarantee to respect the borders that existed when they achieved national independence”. For more than 60 years， African countries have tried their best to avoid conflicts caused by unreasonable demarcation lines. There are many African countries and three non-permanent seats for Africa on the UN Security Council. The majority voting weight and unanimous collective proposition makes Africa an important force in international affairs. For example， at the 10th emergency special session of the United Nations General Assembly on October 27， 2023， African countries pushed for the adoption of a resolution on the Palestinian-Israeli conflict by an overwhelming majority （120 votes in favor， 14 votes against and 45 abstentions）， regardless of the opposition of the United States. On November 2， 2023， the 78th United Nations General Assembly overwhelmingly adopted the draft resolution “Necessity of ending the economic， commercial and financial embargo imposed by the United States against Cuba” submitted by Cuba.

China’s Africa Policy and Practice

China-Africa relations have enjoyed time-honored history. Since the independence of African countries， there has been evident interplay between China’s Africa policy and global strategy. African scholars recognize that China-Africa cooperation is an important part of China’s battle against imperialism， colonialism and racial discrimination. “Some facts prove that China attaches great importance to Africa. At the international trade conference held in Beijing in the mid-1950s， China pledged to help African countries in their struggle for independence. China supported the Mau Mau Rebellion， regarding it as a force against imperialism. Premier Zhou Enlai’s famous quote during his visit to Africa from late 1963 to early 1964 goes ‘the revolution in Africa is mature’. China condemned Rhodesian whites’ ‘unilateral declaration of independence’ （November 11， 1965）. Its support for nationalist movements extended to Portuguese colonies， Zimbabwe， South Africa and Southwest Africa. China has consistently condemned the racist regime and aided the opponents of this system， especially the Pan Africanist Congress”.

China and Africa share a common destiny. When meeting African friends in 1959， Chairman Mao pointed out， “you need support and so do we. All socialist countries need support. Who will support us？ It’s undoubtedly the national liberation movement in Asia， Africa and Latin America. This is the most important force supporting us ... You can consider China to be a friend of yours. We can contain imperialism and disperse its power so that its oppression on Africa will be diluted”. In 1961， when meeting with African friends， he said， “Africa is the front line of struggle ... you support our struggle and we support yours”. Chairman Mao not only advocated the idea of China and Africa treating each other as equals， but also clearly expressed China’s attitude of mutual support and assistance with Africa. During his visit to Egypt in December 1963， Premier Zhou Enlai put forward five principles underpinning China’ relations with African and Arab countries. He also announced eight principles for China’s foreign economic and technical assistance during his visit to Ghana. China-Africa cooperation has made remarkable achievements， as evidenced by the Tanzania-Zambia Railway. As African scholars pointed out， “China’s first major contribution to Africa’s decolonization cause was the construction of the costly Tanzania-Zambia Railway”.

In comparison， the United States and Western countries， in addition to violently interfering with Africa militarily and forcing strategies that are in line with their own interests， also use aid as an excuse to deter the economic development of African countries， such as restricting their industrial development， deliberately intervening in their politics in the name of so-called “democratization”， interfering with their normal development by playing up issues such as human rights and the environment， and discrediting the relationship between Africa and other emerging market countries. In order to get aid， some African countries had to carry out various “reforms” that are not in line with their on-the-ground reality according to the will of the United States and Western counties， and few have succeeded. Some independently-minded African leaders tried to get rid of the control of the United States and Western counties and explore the path toward independent development， but they were often assassinated， overthrown and forced into exile， such as Lumumba in the Democratic Republic of Congo， Amilcar Cabral in Guinea-Bissau and Nkrumah in Ghana. Kwesi Pratt， a Ghanaian scholar， believes that “if Africans have their own worst enemies， it is the system forced upon them by the Western world. On the one hand， this system hinders Africa’s economic progress and development. On the other hand， there have constantly been talks and actions about giving ‘assistance’ to impoverished Africa”.

Since the reform and opening-up， China’s Africa policy has gradually completed the triple transformation， namely from emphasizing ideology to calling for not drawing lines with ideology， from single to multiple fields of communication， and from emphasizing economic assistance to mutual benefit and win-win outcomes. Since the 1980s， economic cooperation between the two sides has gained further momentum. Since 1991， Chinese Foreign Minister’s first overseas visit in the New Year has been to Africa. In order to strengthen China-Africa cooperation under new circumstances， jointly meet the challenges of economic globalization and seek common development， the ministerial meeting of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation （FOCAC） was held in Beijing in October 2000 at the joint initiative of China and Africa， and FOCAC was formally established. In 2018， the FOCAC Beijing Summit adopted the Beijing Declaration - Toward an Even Stronger China-Africa Community with a Shared Future and the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation-Beijing Action Plan （2019-2021）. At the 8th Ministerial Conference of FOCAC in 2021， President Xi Jinping made proposals on building a China-Africa community with shared future in new era.

China-Africa cooperation is based on equal treatment and common development. Since the Belt and Road Initiative （BRI） was put forward by President Xi Jinping in 2013， China has always followed the principles of sincerity， real results， amity and good faith， as well as extensive consultation， joint contribution and shared benefits. At the same time， Africa is endowed with unique advantages in Belt and Road cooperation. The relationship between China and Africa has a long history. The two sides enjoy similar cultural values and historical experiences. Both leaders show great support for the program as it is based on equality and mutual benefit. There has been mature and sound cooperation mechanism， large overseas Chinese communities and deep foundation of friendship between the peoples. African people spoke highly of China’s achievements in infrastructure construction in Africa. At FOCAC Johannesburg Summit in 2015， African leaders agreed that the BRI proves to be very important to Africa. African countries welcome China’s active participation in infrastructure and interconnection construction such as railways， highways and ports in Africa and the transfer of high-quality production capacity to Africa. Africa has great potential in human resources， arable land， industry， infrastructure upgrade and livelihood improvement. The late Namibian President Geingob once said that China has always treated small and medium-sized African countries equally， historically supported Africa’s just cause， and continues to help Africa’s development nowadays. Rwandan President Kagame believes that China has always treated Africa equally， which is “more precious than money”.

The Relationship Between China-Africa Cooperation and China’s Global Strategy

Historically， the relevancy between China-Africa cooperation and China’s global strategy is evident. Africa is an important comprehensive strategic partner of China， and China’s Africa policy is an important part of China’s diplomatic strategy. Africa is not only an important supplier of strategic materials for China， but also major destination for China’s foreign investment and export. As an important partner in production capacity， Africa provides a new pathway for Chinese businesses to go global. Africa-China cooperation has achieved fruitful results， which not only improved infrastructure and people’s living standards， but also promoted exchange of state governance experience and raised voice internationally， fully demonstrating the importance of South-South cooperation.

The international order is in a critical period of major changes. Although the United States and Western countries still dominate the international order， especially with the United States using sanctions as a political tool and weapon， the counter-force is increasingly gaining steam. Mike Billington with the Schiller Institute believes that “the global pattern has completely changed. The BRICS countries are now united against the war policies and sanctions policies of the UK， US and NATO. Basically， the whole Global South is openly seeking to join the BRICS or participate in the Belt and Road cooperation to break the hegemony of the US dollar in world trade”. Charles Freeman Jr.， an American expert on China said that “five centuries of Euro-Atlantic hegemony has ended， and the US is the successor of European colonialism. Alternative institutions like BRICS are constantly burgeoning. People also mention that with Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the New Development Bank under the leadership of the BRICS countries in place， the freedom of action of medium-sized countries like Saudi Arabia has been widely expanded. They now have other choices than solely pledging allegiance to the US.” Rahman， a Bangladeshi researcher， pointed out， “the world is at a critical moment， because the unipolar international order under American hegemony shows signs of making way for the ever-developing multilateralism.”

In the process of profound changes in the world order， the strategic significance of China-Africa cooperation is particularly clear. The relationship between China-Africa relations and China’s global strategy is mainly manifested in implementing global strategy through China’ s Africa policy， promoting global governance through China-Africa cooperation， forming an international united front with the Global South and promoting democracy-based international relations. The relationship between the pair is reflected in three aspects， cooperation in action， agreement in thinking and reform in institution.

The first is cooperation in action. Since the new era， it calls for great efforts to put China’s major strategic concepts and programs into practice， such as building a community with a shared future for mankind， the BRI， Global Development Initiative， Global Security Initiative， Global Civilization Initiative among others. Africa and China have long-term cooperation and are each other’s sincere friend and reliable partner. China’s Africa policy and cooperation programs have also been endorsed by people of vision. Jeffrey Sachs， an American economist， once said， “African people have a low savings rate and need external international financing help， such as the African Development Bank or the BRI， which can provide funds for infrastructure construction in Africa.” China-Africa cooperation projects have blossomed one after another， such as the Mombasa-Nairobi Railway in Kenya， the new terminal of the Bole International Airport in Ethiopia， the photovoltaic power station project in Algeria， the rural communication and digital network in Ghana， the public lighting facilities in Lokossa， Benin， the Zonglu hydropower project in Nigeria， the cloud data center of the Ministry of Finance of the Democratic Republic of Congo， etc. Thanks to mutually beneficial cooperation between China and Africa， African agricultural products such as Kenyan black tea， Ethiopian sesame， Madagascar geranium and Namibian baobab fruit powder have entered the Chinese market. The principles of global development initiatives have been concretely put into practice in China-Africa cooperation.

The second is consistency of philosophy. The proposal and implementation of building a community with a shared future for mankind is a model of the harmony between Chinese and African philosophy. In November 2012， the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China proposed efforts to “raise awareness about human beings sharing a community with a shared future”. In his speech at Dar es Salaam， Tanzania in 2013， President Xi Jinping first proposed that China and Africa have always been a community with a shared future. In 2015， during the general debate of the 70th UN General Assembly， President Xi Jinping emphasized the need to build a new type of international relations with win-win cooperation as the core and build a community with a shared future for mankind. In 2018， the Beijing Summit of the FOCAC with the theme of “China and Africa： Toward an Even Stronger Community with a Shared Future through Win-Win Cooperation” was successfully held， and both sides unanimously decided to build a closer community with a shared future between China and Africa. In 2023， the Disarmament and International Security Committee of the 78th UN General Assembly （First Committee of the UN General Assembly） successively voted to adopt resolutions such as “further practical measures to prevent an arms race in outer space” and “no first placement of weapons in outer space”， all of which incorporated China’s concept of building a community with a shared future for mankind， marking the 7th year in a row for it to be written into the General Assembly resolution.

The third is the reform of the system. As an important driving force for the reform of the global governance system， African countries generally demand the reform of the current international order and its rules， because most of the relevant international institutions and basic rules were created or formulated after World War II with most African countries under colonial rule at the time， and their national interests and demands are not reflected and guaranteed. China advocates true multilateralism and institutional construction of international cooperation， and actively promotes the Global South to raise their voice and decision-making power in international affairs and play an important role. On the basis of maintaining the international system with the United Nations at the core， China firmly supports the innovative reform of African countries in establishing fair and reasonable international relations， actively participates in and promotes the establishment of a new mechanism for South-South cooperation， and provides more development opportunities for the Global South. As a model of unity and cooperation in the Global South， China and Africa will play an important role in global governance system reform.

Under the background of profound changes in the world order， China should pay attention to the following aspects in its relations with Africa and developing countries. It should adhere to development as the main axis as peace， stability and development are the common goals of developing countries. China is willing to help these countries develop all together， which marks the fundamental difference from the Western powers， and the essence of the community with a shared future for mankind. Efforts should be made to highlight key areas， stay open-minded， strengthen exchanges and mutual learning between China and the regional powers， countries with profound history and countries with relatively vague strategic identities， and enhance the effectiveness of cooperation. We should seize the great opportunities brought about by the strategic alignment of China-Africa development strategies and high-quality Belt and Road cooperation， and constantly promote the China-Africa comprehensive strategic partnership to develop to a higher level and wider fields.

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Li Anshan is Honorary Chairman， Chinese Society of African Historical Studies