The Silk Road on the Prairies During the Mongol-Yuan Period

Zhai Yu

This book covers several chapters on the daily life of the Yuan Dynasty， including the royal family， scholars， commoners， economic society， and cultural arts. Each chapter is further divided into various topics for detailed discussion. Through comprehensive research on Yuan Dynasty politics， the imperial family， economic activities， societal production， and cultural phenomena， the author aims to present a true depiction of the society of that era.

During the Mongol-Yuan period， Mongol cavalry， under the leadership of Genghis Khan and his descendants， swept across the Eurasian continent， establishing a vast empire. During Kublai Khans reign， the Central Plains of China were incorporated into this unified empire. The traditional Silk Road came under the control of the entire empire， leading to vibrant East-West cultural exchanges and an unprecedented prosperity of the Silk Road.

The Mongol rulers realized from their years of conquest that to keep their expansive Eurasian empire functioning smoothly， efficient transportation and quick communication were essential. During Genghis Khans reign， guards were placed along major roads “to ensure the safety of travelers and merchants” and to protect their goods and trade. In 1203 CE， Muslim traders like Ah San brought 1，000 sheep and a white camel from the Ongud region to trade for mink and green rat skins at the Erguna River Mongol territory. In 1217 CE， “three Muslims from the city of Khwarezm in Central Asia” brought silk textiles into Mongol territory. After trading， as they were about to return， Genghis Khan ordered his kings， nayans， and generals to offer personal goods for trade and sent envoys with them to buy rare goods from Khwarezm. The trading group he organized “consisted of about 450 people， all Muslims，” and traveled to the Central Asia region for trade.

The Mongol-Yuan Empire set up numerous relay stations on the Eurasian steppes. “In the north， there were 119 stations， including places like Terigan， Mulin， and Naren.” They aimed to keep informed about border situations and spread orders， but they inadvertently strengthened and promoted communication on the ancient Silk Road. The extensive network of relay stations greatly facilitated overland transportation between the East and West， ensuring the smooth flow of the Silk Road. Throughout the Yuan Dynasty， all relay stations remained under effective government jurisdiction. The government consistently maintained and provided ample financial support and manpower for these stations， ensuring the safety of travelers. As stated in the Military Annals of the Yuan Dynasty， “there were stations for traveling envoys to stay and rest， and they found lodging， food， and drink at these stations.” Over the long journey from Central Asia and Europe to China， envoys and merchants could travel day and night safely， a fact documented in many Chinese and foreign travel records.

The main routes of the Mongol-Yuan Silk Road included starting from Dadu （present-day Beijing） and heading north to Shangdu （now in Xilin Gol， Inner Mongolia）. From Shangdu， three routes diverged： One northeast to various regions of Liaoyang Province; One west through Fengzhou and Dongsheng， then south along the Yellow River to the Gansu Corridor; The other either from Shangdu or via Yijinai， turning north into the Gobi Desert， or from Fengzhou heading north through the Ongud territory into the Gobi. Each of these routes reached the northern province cities of Har and Olin. From there， they continued west， passing north of the Tianshan Mountains， leading to Central Asia， West Asia， and Europe.

The upper and main cities of the Mongol Empire became hubs for envoys and trading caravans from various countries， thriving with activity. In the year 1245， Pope Innocent IV dispatched an embassy headed by John of Plano Carpini， a Franciscan friar， to the court of the Mongol Khan. In 1246， Carpini and his team entered the Qinscha grasslands， initially visiting the camp of the Qinscha Khan Batu. They then traversed the Qinscha grasslands， passing the regions north of the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea， by the rivers of Volga （formerly Yedil River） and Ural （formerly Yaik River）， through Central Asia， north of the Syr Darya， south of Lake Balkhash， through the Chagatai Khanate， crossed the Altai Mountains， and finally reached the capital city of the Mongol Empire， Karakorum. Besides， in 1253， a Franciscan friar named Rubruck， who set out from the Byzantine Empire， and shortly after， the King of Cilician Armenia， Hethum， both journeyed along the northern route of the Silk Road on the grasslands， reaching the central Mongolian city of Karakorum.

The Silk Roads route during the Mongol Yuan Dynasty is well-documented by the famous traveler Marco Polos journey to China. In 1271， Marco Polo， accompanied by his father and uncle， departed from Venice， Italy. Upon reaching Central Asia， they followed the southern route of the Silk Road into the Hexi Corridor， explored Yijinai Road （present-day Ejina Banner in Inner Mongolias Heicheng ruins）， then redirected to travel through Hetao to Tiande （present-day Hohhot） and continued eastward， reaching Shangdu （the upper capital） in 1275， where they met Kublai Khan. By 1295， Marco Polo returned to Venice and later wrote The Travels of Marco Polo， which detailed his journey into China， especially offering insights into the geography， customs， and history of places along the Silk Road.

In 1318， an Italian Franciscan monk named Odoric set out from Europe to the East. He spent over a decade traveling through various eastern countries. Upon his return， he narrated his experiences to a cleric named William， resulting in the book The East Travels of Odoric. Beginning his journey from Venice， he sailed across the Black Sea， traveled through Western Asia and South Asian countries， and in 1328， he arrived in Guangzhou， China. He then traveled north to Dadu （Beijing） and， after three years， began his return to his homeland. His return journey started from Dadu， heading northwest through Shangdu， entering Dongsheng， then following the Yellow River towards the southwest， through Zhongxing （present-day Yinchuan） in the Hexi Corridor， via Xinjiang and the Tibetan plateau， and eventually through Central Asia and Persia to return to Italy. This route highlights his travel along portions of the Silk Road.

While foreign travelers journeyed to China from Europe， there were also notable Chinese explorers heading west. Among those who documented their travels were Yelü Chucai， Qiu Chuji， Wugusun Zhongduan， Changde， and Lieban Saoma.

Yelü Chucai was a prominent Khitan statesman and scholar during the Mongol-Yuan Dynasty. In 1218， Genghis Khan invited him to his northern palace， placing him as a close advisor. In 1219， when Genghis Khan campaigned westward， Yelü Chucai was commissioned to accompany him and later followed him back to the east. During this western expedition， Yelü Chucai resided in Central Asia for six years， covering a distance of 60，000 li. Starting in March 1218， Yelü Chucais route was roughly： Departing from Yongan， passing Juyongguan， through Wuchuan， exiting Yunzhong （present-day Datong）， heading north to reach the northern part of the Tianshan mountains where Genghis Khan was encamped. The following year （1219）， they moved westward， crossing the Altai Mountains， the Gobi desert， passing cities like Luntai， Hezhou （ancient Gaochang）， further west through cities like Almaliq， Khwarezm， Taraz， Bukhara， finally reaching the capital of Khwarazm， present-day Bukhara. Upon his return to the Central Plains， Yelü Chucai wrote Records of the Journey to the West， detailing the geography and conditions of the regions he visited.

During the Jin-Yuan transition， Taoist Qiu Chuji was invited by Genghis Khan to travel from China to the West to preach and interpret scriptures. The Journey to the West of the Changchun Taoist details Qiu Chujis journey to Samarkand and then to Genghis Khans palace on the northwestern slope of the Kunlun Mountains， and later his return to Samarkand to officially preach. The next volume documents Qiu Chujis eastern return journey and his observations of the customs and habits of the locals. Qiu Chujis routes， both to and fro， primarily followed the Silk Road. His western route began from present-day Penglai in Shandong， to Beijing， exiting Juyongguan， heading north to the Kerulen River， turning westward to todays Har Ouz in Mongolia and the southern shore of Lake Har， then southwest over the Altai Mountains， across the Junggar Basin to the eastern shore of Lake Sayram， then south through Central Asia， reaching Balasagun on the northwestern slope of the Kunlun Mountains. On the return eastward， he passed through Huocheng County in Xinjiang， headed east to Changji， went north from Jimsar， crossed the Ulungur River， and reached Zhenhaicheng. From there， he continued eastward to Fengzhou city in Yinshan， passed Datong， and finally arrived in Xuanhua， Hebei. Journey to the West of the Changchun Taoist meticulously documents the journey from Dengzhou in Shandong all the way to the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan， providing detailed accounts of the landscapes and roads encountered.

During Genghis Khans westward expedition， Muqali led the army in a continued assault on the Jin Dynasty. In the fourth year of Jin Xingding （1220）， Emperor Xuanzong of Jin sent An Yanzhen and Wugusun Zhongduan to the Mongols， seeking peace. Upon reaching Muqali， An Yanzhen stayed， while Wugusun Zhongduan continued westward to Central Asia to meet Genghis Khan. However， the peace efforts failed， and Wugusun Zhongduan returned to Bianjing in the Central Plains the following year （1221）. Upon his return， Wugusun Zhongduan orally recounted his observations in Central Asia to the scholar Liu Qi， who then compiled them into “The North Envoys Record.”

Changde， also known by his courtesy name Renqing， has little detailed record of his life. In 1259， he was dispatched by Mongke Khan， departing from the cities of Harahor and Lin in the northern desert to journey far west to meet Hulagu Khan in West Asia. He returned to Harahor and Lin city in the winter of the following year （1260）， with the round trip taking 14 months. His journey and observations were recorded by Liu Yu of Zhending， Hebei， and compiled into the Western Envoys Record. Changdes route mainly began from Harahor and Lin City， moving westward across the Hangai Mountains and Altai Mountains， then through Xinjiang territory into Central Asia， and further westward to West Asia， primarily following the steppe Silk Road.

In Dadu， Lieban Saoma， a Nestorian Christian （known as the Nestorian Church）， lived secluded in the mountains. Ma Husi， also a Nestorian Christian from Dongshengzhou （present-day Tuoketuo County in Inner Mongolia）， sought him out， proposing a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. In 1278， the two set out from Dadu， traveling westward from Dadu to Shangdu along the main postal road， then turning southwest along the Huanghe （Yellow River） region， through Zhongxing Prefecture （modern-day Yinchuan） into the Hexi Corridor， westward again into the Western Regions and Central Asia， making their way through the Ilkhanate and finally reaching Jerusalem.

The Mongol Yuan Dynasty saw abundant physical evidence of economic and cultural exchanges across the steppe Silk Road， such as： at the ruins of the Yijinai Roads Ejin Banner Black Citys southern wall， where the remains of a Yuan Dynasty mosque stand; In the Ming Shui burial site in Baotou， artifacts like a robe woven with Nashi thread and embroidered with a Sphinx-like pattern were discovered; In the Chifeng region， Yuan Dynasty Islamic tombstone carvings and Nestorian porcelain tombstones have been found; Yuan Dynasty blue-and-white porcelain artifacts， with blue-and-white pigments sourced from the West， were discovered at the Yanjia Liang site in Baotou and Wengniute Banner in Chifeng. During the Mongol era， both the Kipchak Khanate and the Ilkhanate were located in Central and West Asia and Eastern Europe. Archaeological excavations in these regions attest to an intense material and cultural exchange during that period. For instance， archaeological digs by Russian scholars within the Kipchak Khanate territory reveal a plethora of Chinese goods in the cities of New and Old Sarai， such as silk garments， decorated bronze wares， ancient coins， blue-and-white porcelain， and ceramics from the Cizhou kiln system.

Everyday Life in the Yuan Dynasty

Zhai Yu

China Workers Publishing House

October 2023

98.00 （CNY）

Zhai Yu

Zhai Yu is an associate researcher at the Inner Mongolia Academy of Social Sciences Institute of History with a Ph.D. in History. He graduated from the History Department of Inner Mongolia University （IMU） and the Yuan Dynasty Research Department of Nanjing University （NJU）， specializing in Yuan Dynasty and Mongol history.