編輯:賈朋群
“Nordhaus was in a position early on to think about climate change from a human-welfare and well-being perspective. Without him, there wouldn’t be such a subject of climate economics.”
“Nordhaus是早期從人類福祉的角度思考氣候變化的學者,沒有他也不會有氣候經濟學這樣的學科?!?/p>
——2018年諾貝爾經濟學獎由兩位美國經濟學者William Nordhaus和Paul Romer分享,以表彰他們將氣候變化和技術改變融入宏觀經濟學之中,后者研究經濟學作為一個整體的行為,而在討論氣候變化對社會經濟的影響時,整體視角是最佳的路徑。針對本次獲獎者,德國波茨坦氣候影響研究所主任Ottmar Edenhofer如此評論來自耶魯大學、創建了氣候變化經濟學的獲獎者之一Nordhaus的學術思想和影響。
“As a first step to demonstrating how this type of satellite measurements could be used, we chose nine sites in all – sites in the US, Europe, Africa and Australia. We took four satellite missions that observe soil moisture and we were able to measure the amount of water applied for irrigation between two consecutive soilmoisture measurements from space.”
“第一步要展示這類衛星的觀測如何被利用,我們選擇位于美國、歐洲、非洲和澳大利亞的總計9個地點。我們利用4種可觀測土壤濕度衛星,從空間測得兩次連續土壤濕度觀測之間灌溉的水供給量?!?/p>
——世界上約70%的淡水資源被用于農業灌溉,這也是人類“干擾”全球水循環最主要的方式。意大利學者Luca Brocca領導的團隊致力于用衛星探測數據解釋農業灌溉用水的細節,他對這項即將發表的研究成果進行了如上表述。
“As glaciers thin around the world, they are modifying their landscapes dramatically. In the case of Taan Fjord, the result was a massive tsunami. The tsunami was triggered by a massive landslide in October 2015 that occurred above a glacier that had retreated dramatically in the late 20th century, We need to better understand the risk posed by these steep slopes in a changing climate. Our results call attention to an indirect effect of climate change that is increasing the frequency and magnitude of natural hazards near glaciated mountains.”
“當全球冰川萎縮時,會大幅度改變其特征。對Taan Fjord冰川而言,帶來的結果就是巨大海嘯的發生。海嘯因2015年10月發生在20世紀后期嚴重退縮的冰川之上的大規模滑坡觸發,我們需要更好地認識氣候變化中這些陡坡造成的風險。我們的結果提示要關注氣候變化的間接影響,即冰川山區附近自然災害的頻率和量級的增加。”
——氣候變化給冰川地區帶來的變化無疑是最大的。2015年阿拉斯加發生浪高達到200 m的海嘯,是有記載以來的最大記錄。這次海嘯因冰川融化引發,美國華盛頓大學地球科學助理教授Dan Shugar及其團隊針對冰川消融帶來的災害風險展開研究并發表了研究結果。
“Clouds play a major role in the Earth's climate by transporting heat and moisture, reflecting and absorbing the sun's rays, trapping infrared heat rays and producing precipitation. But they can be as small as a few hundred meters, much tinier than a standard climate model grid resolution of 50 to 100 kilometers,so simulating them appropriately takes an enormous amount of computer power and time. But a lack of supercomputer power, or the wrong type, means that this is still a long way off. Meanwhile,the field has to cope with huge margins of error on issues related to changes in future rainfall and how cloud changes will amplify or counteract global warming from greenhouse gas emissions.”
“云通過傳輸熱量和水汽,反射和吸收太陽輻射,吸收紅外熱輻射和產生降水,在地球氣候中起重要作用。但是云可以小到幾百米,較標準的氣候模式50~100 km的網格分辨率小很多,所有模擬云需要消耗大量的計算資源和時間。然而,缺乏超級計算能力或計算方式不妥意味著還有很長的路要走。與此同時,這一領域含有與未來降水以及云變化如何放大或抵消溫室氣體排放導致變暖等相關問題的巨大誤差?!?/p>
——美國和德國學者面對氣候變化模式中云模擬的難題,試圖探索機器深度學習是否能夠帶來一種有效、客觀和數據驅動的其他方案,能夠快速應用于氣候預測。該方法基于模仿人類思考和學習技能的算法,試圖解決氣候模式次網格問題。研究成果已經在PNAS發表,論文第二作者、助理教授Michael Pritchard對這些工作的意義,表達了上述看法。
“These contracts represent another step toward bringing commercial sector innovation to NOAA’s mission of delivering life-saving weather forecasts and warnings. By collaboratively testing commercial sector capabilities and new business models, we continue to optimize the impact of our observations and reduce costs for taxpayers.”
“這些合同代表將商業領域創新納入NOAA挽救生命天氣預警使命的又一個步驟。通過合作驗證商業圈的能力及新的商業模式,我們繼續優化觀測的作用和減輕納稅人的負擔?!?/p>
——NOAA宣布繼續投入840萬美元購買3家私人衛星數據商的衛星無線電掩星數據。這3家中標機構(獲得資助經費)分別是Spire Global(142.5萬美元)、PlanetIQ(350萬美元)和GeoOptics(344萬美元)。據悉,這是該機構第二次資助私人衛星數據提供商,2016年NOAA曾經分別向Spire Global(37萬美元)和GeoOptics(69.5萬美元)提供了總計超過100萬美元的私人商業衛星天氣數據合同。在美國終止與中國臺灣合作開展第二階段無線電掩星氣象數據項目后,今年NOAA顯然加強了這一商業天氣數據購買示范項目的投入力度,該局的衛星和信息局官員Karen St. Germain針對本次購買合同表示了上述看法。
“"We determined that in the first eight days post-landfall, 30 percent of Harvey’s stormwater was captured or stored on land --most as standing water that sits on the surface. Around 60 percent was lost or drained into the ocean and Galveston Bay over the first few days after the storm, and the remaining 10 percent was lost via evapotranspiration, or a combination of evaporation and plant transpiration," said first author Chris Milliner of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California.”
“我們確定,在登陸后的前8天,“哈維”颶風導致降水中有30%被捕獲或儲存在陸地上——最主要是以地面上的積水形式。在風暴過后的最初幾天,大約有60%的水流失或排入海洋和加爾維斯頓灣,剩下的10%因蒸發蒸騰作用或者是蒸發和植物蒸騰作用的結合而消失。”
——2017年“哈維”颶風引發的得克薩斯州東南部降水,過程雨量達到1.5 m,成為美國創記錄的最濕颶風。那么這些降水在颶風登陸后流向哪里了?美國NASA學者基于GPS技術在最新的研究里回答了這個問題,該論文的第一作者,來自JPL的Chris Milliner描述了這次颶風降水的去處。
“ESA’s SMOS mission can give us really interesting new information for operational storm forecasting, which we hope to use along with our traditional sources of data. SMOS measurements can help us keep track of the structure of a dangerous storm. Combining SMOS data with that from its US counterpart SMAP mission, will give us more timely information which is essential for monitoring major storms.”
“ESA的SMOS衛星確實能夠提供用于風暴預報的新信息,這些新數據我們將和傳統數據源結合利用。SMOS觀測能幫助我們跟蹤危險風暴的結構。將SMOS與美國類似的SMAP衛星結合起來,能提供監測風暴更及時的核心信息。”
——2018年颶風和臺風分別在世界各地造成災害。在對這些災情進行預測和監測過程中,歐洲空間局(ESA)發射的SMOS衛星(Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity,土壤濕度和海洋鹽分衛星)發揮著獨特作用。SMOS主要通過L波段微波傳感器獲得亮溫圖像,獲得地表輻射,從而得到土壤濕度和海洋鹽分信息,該圖像具有穿透云和雨層的能力。強烈風暴能干擾這些信息的獲取,但反過來也提供了風暴本身的信息(如風速等)。美國海軍研究實驗室的Buck Sampson介紹了該衛星針對風暴預報的用途。
善變的美國總統Donald Trump針對氣候變化的表態,根據媒體報到,似乎發生了某種改變,以下是其接受記者(Lesley Stahl)采訪時最開始的幾句對話:
Lesley Stahl: Do you still think that climate change is a hoax?
(你還認為氣候變化是騙局嗎?)
Donald Trump: I think something’s happening. Something’s changing and it’ll change back again. I don’t think it's a hoax, I think there’s probably a difference. But I don’t know that it’s manmade.I will say this. I don’t wanna give trillions and trillions of dollars. I don’t wanna lose millions and millions of jobs. I don’t wanna be put at a disadvantage.
(我想是發生了什么。有時有改變但最后還要變回來。我不認為它是騙局,我想有可能有差別。但是我不知道它是人為造成的,我只能這么說。我不想投入大量金錢。我不想失去大量工作崗位。我不想處于不利地位。)
Lesley Stahl: I wish you could go to Greenland, watch these huge chunks of ice just falling into the ocean, raising the sea levels.
(我希望你能去格陵蘭,看看巨大冰塊掉進海里,讓海面抬升。)
Donald Trump: And you don’t know whether or not that would have happened with or without man. You don't know.
(可你不知道有人類和沒有人類時這些是否會發生,你不知道。)
Lesley Stahl: Well, your scientists, your scientists--
(好,你的科學家,你的科學家。。。。。。)
President Donald Trump: No, we have--
(不知道,我們有科學家。。。。。。)
Lesley Stahl: At NOAA and NASA--
(在NOAA和NASA。。。。。)
Donald Trump: We have scientists that disagree with that.
(我們有科學家不同意這樣的說法。)
Advances in Meteorological Science and Technology2018年5期