鄒立志
敘事(narrative) 能力的發(fā)展是兒童語言發(fā)展的重要方面,敘事要求兒童除了具備基本的詞匯、語法能力外,還需有把句子組成篇章的能力。有關(guān)兒童敘事能力的發(fā)展研究主要關(guān)注敘事結(jié)構(gòu)①Labov W.Waletzky J.,“Narrative Analysis:Oral Version of Personal Experience,”Helm J.Ed.Essays on the Verbal and Visual Arts.Seattle:University of Washington Press.1967.pp.12-44.②Peterson C. & McCabe A.,Developmental Psycholinguisitics: Three Ways of Looking at a Child's Narrative,New York:Plenum,1983.③Minami M.McCabe A., Haiku as a Discourse Regulation Device:A Stanza Analysis of Japanese Children's Personal Narratives.Language in Society 20:577, 1991.、故事語法④Mandler JM., A Code in the Node:the Use of Story Schema in Retrieval.Discourse Processes 1:14, 1978.⑤Stein NL.,“The Development of Children's Storytelling Skill,” Franklin MB.Barten SB,Eds, Child language:A reader.New York:Oxford University Press.1988.pp.282-297.⑥Uchikoshi Y., Narrative Development in Bilingual Kindergarteners:Can Arthur Help.Developmental Psychology 41:464,2005.和敘事銜接性①Peterson C. & McCabe A., Children's Connective Use and Narrative Macrostructure Developing Narrative Structure,Hillsdale,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991.②Chang C., Telling Stories of Experience: Narrative Development of Young Chinese Children,Applied Psycholinguistics 25:83,2004.幾個維度的發(fā)展,而敘事銜接性中很重要的一個方面就是兒童用來銜接敘事內(nèi)容的指稱手段(reference)的研究。
卡蜜洛英·史密斯(Karmiloff-Smith)③Karmiloff-Smith Annette, The Grammatical Marking of Thematic Structure in the Development of Language Production.W.Deutsch(ed.),The Child's Construction of Language.London: Academic Press, 1981.最早通過圖片誘發(fā)兒童敘事,對4—9 歲英語和法語兒童在引入指稱和保留指稱能力的發(fā)展進行了研究。她將兒童的指稱能力分為三個階段:第一階段為指示性策略階段(4—5 歲),即兒童指示多而回指少;第二階段為主角策略階段(6—7 歲),偏向于在指稱主角時使用指稱形式,而次要角色則不使用;第三階段是成熟階段(7—9 歲)。
兒童會用名詞引入指稱,用代詞回指之前提到過的角色,與成人的表現(xiàn)相似。隨后,又有很多學(xué)者針對匈牙利語、德語、英語、粵語和漢語的兒童進行研究,都得到了與上述幾個年齡階段相一致的結(jié)果。④Bamberg Michael, A Functional Approach to the Acquisition of Anaphoric Relationships, Linguistics 24(1):227-284, 1986.⑤Hickmann Maya & Liang James, Clause-Structure Variation in Chinese Narrative Discourse: A Developmental Analysis, Linguistics 28(6):1167-1200,1990.⑥Joyce Leung,Pui-Ling, A Study of Picture-elicited Narratives by Cantonese-Speaking Children, A Dissertatin Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Bachelor of Sciences(Speech and Hearing Sciences),The University of Hongkong,1992.⑦Wigglesworth Gillian , Children's Individual Approaches to the Organization of Narrative, Journal of Child Language 24:279-309,1997.⑧Fekete Gabriella, Referential Cohesion in Hungarian: A Developmental Study, Preceedings of Ling 2007:75-82,2007.⑨Tse Cheung-yin Sharon, Cohesion in Cantonese-speaking Children' s Picture-elicited Narratives.Hongkong:University of Hongkong BSc Dissertation, 1997.
語言學(xué)理論認為,指稱可以分為產(chǎn)生篇章銜接的文內(nèi)照應(yīng)(endophoric)和不產(chǎn)生篇章銜接的文外照應(yīng)(exophoric)。前者即通常所說的篇章回指(anaphora),后者即通常所說的指示(deixis)。⑩M.A.K.Halliday & Ruqaiya Hasan , Cohesion in English.London:Longman,1976,p.32.人類語言中普遍使用的篇章回指手段主要有名詞回指、代詞回指和零形回指三種。例如:“去年春天,我從報上看到一個同學(xué)的先進事跡,這個同學(xué)是我的好朋友。快畢業(yè)時,我問她的理想是什么,她說:‘我的理想呀,是當一名宇航員。'?說完,?就笑了。”在這段話語中,敘事者用無定名詞“一個同學(xué)”引入新信息,然后用有定名詞“這個同學(xué)”回指“一個同學(xué)”,再用代詞“她”回指“這個同學(xué)”,最后兩個小句用零形式(指不使用任何語言形式的回指)回指“她”。……