李盛
作為一種語言測試,托福考試重點考查考生的英語語言水平。因此,能夠寫出正確、流暢的英語作文是考生在托福獨立寫作單項上取得高分的必備條件。在《托福考試官方指南》(The Official Guide to the TOEFL Test,下文簡稱OG)中,關于獨立寫作語言運用方面的要求是這樣的:“Language use is the third criterion on which your essay will be judged. To get a top score, an essay must display ‘consistent facility in the use of language. There should be a variety of sentence structures, and word choice should be appropriate.”考生由此可以看出,托福獨立寫作對于語言的總體要求是consistent facility in the use of language (語言運用和諧流暢),具體要求是a variety of sentence structures (句子結構多樣)和word choice should be appropriate (措辭貼切得體)。本文筆者就來介紹如何在托福獨立寫作中做到句式多樣。
首先,考生需要知道什么樣的句子是沒有變化的,請閱讀下面這段文字:“My brother, Tom, is a good example. Tom lived in the country with my grandparents for twelve years. Then he went to the city. He studied in a middle school there. When Tom was living in the countryside, he seldom fell ill. He enjoyed himself in the nature every day. When he went to the city, he gradually felt his throat sore and often coughed.”這段話是筆者的一位學生在平時練習中寫的,里面的句子大多是簡單句,而句子的主語不是Tom就是he,讀來非常單調。這樣的表達就是缺乏句式變化的表達,在托福獨立寫作中是拿不到高分的。此時就需要改變句子結構,使表達方式變得多樣。下面筆者就來介紹一些常見的句式變化方法。
1 長、短句結合
英語作文中句子的質量往往受其長度影響,但這并不是說所有的句子都越長越好。在英文寫作中,以簡單句為代表的短句能夠給人留下比較深刻的印象,適用于一針見血或開門見山地表明論點,如“主語+謂語+賓語”結構(Living in the country contributes to our health),或“主語+謂語+雙賓語”結構(Sports teach people the spirit of cooperation),或“主語+謂語+賓語+賓語補足語”結構(The development of public transportation makes travel convenient)。而以復合句為代表的長句(包括名詞性從句、形容詞性從句、副詞性從句)則適用于表達非常復雜的邏輯關系,或是用于解釋不同現象間的關系,如“Many teenagers complain that they try to communicate with their parents and are eager to get some advice from them; however, it is always futile to do so.”
由于長句和短句功能不同,在托福獨立寫作中,考生可以用短句來表達關鍵信息,尤其是引言段中的全文論點(thesis statement)和正文段的主題句(topic sentence),然后用長句來描述引言段的背景信息、對正文段的主題句進行擴展,比如下面這段文字:“Children in modern society have become more difficult to understand than children 50 years ago. They acquire a lot more information and ideas than their predecessors did and they obtain this from various sources, such as mass media and the Internet information and ideas which their parents can never accept because they are not open-minded enough and are reluctant to take on new concepts. Therefore, the generation gap between parents and children today has become bigger, and this impedes communication.”這一段中,寫作者在開頭直接用一個短句點明主要觀點,然后用幾個復雜長句進行闡釋,長短句交替出現,避免了枯燥、乏味的問題。
2 松散句和圓周句結合
松散句(loose sentences)是指那些在句子開頭就先給出中心信息,然后再在后面附加大量修飾語或細節進行補充說明的句子。也就是說,松散句會把主要信息放在次要信息之前,例如:“We can get a lot of information about various products when we watch commercials.”圓周句(periodic sentences)則會把最關鍵的信息放在整句話的結尾或比較靠后的位置上,即將次要信息放在主要信息之前,形成欲揚先抑或欲抑先揚的效果,例如:“It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.”一般來說,松散句相對簡單、易懂、自然、直接,圓周句則比較復雜、莊重、正式、文雅。考生在寫獨立寫作部分的作文時可以將兩者結合起來,以使文章錯落有致。
3 使用分詞結構
寫作時,考生們基本都會有意識地去使用一些狀語從句和定語從句。然而,從句使用過多,也會顯得單調。因此,考生可以嘗試將一些從句變為分詞結構。
1. 在狀語從句中,如果從句主語和主句主語一致,可以使用分詞結構。首先,考生要確認從句主語與主句主語一致。然后,考生可以去掉從句主語,將從句謂語動詞改成合適的分詞。最后,考生可以根據句意刪除或保留從屬連詞(如表示時間的before、since、as、after、while、when和表示原因的because、since、as等)。比如下面三組句子。
修改前:While technology creates new jobs in some sectors of economy, it takes away jobs in others.
修改后:While creating new jobs in some sectors of economy, technology takes away jobs in others.
修改前:As he gradually got used to the way of life here, he became less homesick.
修改后:Gradually getting used to the way of life here, he became less homesick.
修改前:When he was asked about his recent life, he kept silent.
修改后:When asked about his recent life, he kept silent.
2. 在定語從句中,如果先行詞在從句中做主語,也可以使用分詞結構,即將定語從句改為現在分詞或過去分詞。例如,“People who live in the country are often friendly”可以改為“People living in the country are often friendly”,“Children who are raised in big families can get on well with others”可以改為“Children raised in big families can get on well with others”。
4 狀語前置
除了使用分詞結構來改變句子開頭,考生還可以將由副詞、介詞短語、動詞不定式等構成的狀語結構放在句首。這樣不僅能使句式發生變化,還能賦予句子一種長短相間的節奏感。比如下面幾句話。
Undoubtedly, teenagers are easily influenced by the violent content in those movies.
Without doubt, technology has changed the way individuals interact with each other in contemporary society.
To alleviate traffic congestion, the municipal government should encourage people to use public transport.
5 使用倒裝句
寫作時,考生還可以采用倒裝結構來變換句式,以對句中的重點信息加以強調。英文寫作中常用的倒裝結構有五種。
1. 介詞短語作地點狀語置于句首,主謂完全倒裝,比如:“On the top of the mountain stands a temple.”
2. 否定詞(如seldom、not only、under no circumstances、by no means等)提前,主謂部分倒裝,比如:“Seldom do people realize that pollution has brought about some serious problems.”
3. Only位于句首修飾狀語,主謂部分倒裝,比如:“Only in this way can the problem of child obesity be effectively controlled.”
4. “so … that …”結構中的“so + adj./adv.”置于句首,主謂完全倒裝,比如:“So valuable is water that we cannot afford to waste it.”
5. 分詞位于句首,主謂完全倒裝,比如:“Adding to societal changes today is an enormous stockpile of information.”
6 使用強調句
除了使用倒裝句,考生同樣可以使用強調句來對句子的重點信息進行有效強調。強調句的結構通常為“It is/was +被強調部分+ that …”,例如:“It is for the benefit of maintaining the ecological balance that human beings ought to protect the endangered animal species.”一般來說,在托福獨立寫作中,強調句多用于以下三種情況:①在開頭段提出論點;②在正文段末進行小結;③在結尾段再次強調自己的論點。
7 添加插入語
除了在句首部分進行變化,考生也可以在句子中間使用插入語結構,以增強句子的節奏感。插入語既可以是單詞、短語,也可以是句子。比如“The computer, an indispensable part of our life, has brought us great convenience”或“College students, lacking social experience, are easily cheated”。
8 使用問句
在寫作中,除了使用陳述句結構,考生偶爾也可以使用一些問句,如修辭疑問句(rhetorical question,類似于中文的設問句)、反問句(echo question)和感嘆疑問句(exclamatory question),以使句式更加豐富。比如:“If there were no Internet, how could people get various types of information immediately?”又如:“Does studying together with a group of people really improve efficiency? The answer is definitely no!”
9 使用過渡詞
除了筆者上文介紹的這些方法,考生在寫作時還要注意上下文的銜接。對于托福獨立寫作,高質量的文章一定要行文流暢,各部分的起承轉合不能有生澀之感。而銜接的主要目的就是要把文章中各部分的內容有機地連接起來,使其成為一個整體,幫助閱讀者更加清楚、準確地判斷各部分之間的關系,更好地把握全文邏輯。這一點在托福獨立寫作評分標準關于結構(Organization)的要求中也有強調。那么要做到這一點,最簡單的方法就是使用過渡詞。以下是筆者列出的一些常見的過渡詞,供考生參考。
1. 表對比:in contrast、on the contrary、while、whereas、on the other hand、nevertheless
2. 表舉例:for example、for instance、such as
3. 表順序:to begin with、what is more、last but not least、first and foremost、secondly、in addition、in the first place
4. 表遞進:besides、furthermore、moreover
5. 表原因:due to、thanks to、owing to、because of、because、as、for、since
6. 表結果:as a result、thus、hence、therefore、 consequently
7. 表總結:on the whole、in conclusion、in short、to sum up
筆者在上面提到的這些方法并不是單獨使用的,往往是結合在一起使用。不過,各位考生不要誤以為句式多樣就是要多寫長難句,殊不知濫用長難句會使語言變得繁冗、拖沓。比如說,考生若想表達“Mary是一個漂亮的女孩子”,寫成“Mary is a beautiful girl”就可以了,如果偏要寫成“Mary is a girl who is beautiful”,句子看上去是變長了,還用了定語從句,但實際上顯得非常累贅。