

140年前的1872年3月1日,崛起的年輕美國(guó)建立了世界第一個(gè)國(guó)家公園—黃石國(guó)家公園。此后,國(guó)家公園成為保存自然風(fēng)景、歷史和文化的樣板,也成為通過(guò)保護(hù)、管理以及實(shí)施青少年項(xiàng)目而推動(dòng)旅游經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展、推動(dòng)文化進(jìn)步和傳承的典范,具有廣泛意義。
當(dāng)時(shí),美國(guó)國(guó)會(huì)通過(guò)法案,由總統(tǒng)格蘭特簽署,面積為8900平方公里的黃石國(guó)家公園得以建立。法案禁止在該公園內(nèi)人居,不得占用和買(mǎi)賣該公園的土地。這個(gè)法案曾遭到當(dāng)?shù)厝说膹?qiáng)烈反對(duì)。很多人想要縮小公園范圍,以便開(kāi)發(fā)礦業(yè)、采伐樹(shù)木和打獵,但沒(méi)有成功。該公園在最初幾年里由一個(gè)民眾團(tuán)體負(fù)責(zé)管理,由于缺乏人力物力財(cái)力,自然環(huán)境和野生動(dòng)物得不到有效保護(hù),大規(guī)模的盜伐、偷獵情況不斷發(fā)生并惡化。1886年,該公園交由美國(guó)陸軍管理,且專門(mén)成立一個(gè)名為“黃石部”的機(jī)構(gòu),在猛犸溫泉附近設(shè)立營(yíng)地,后來(lái)成為黃石要塞。不法行為逐漸得以有效制止。1916年8月,美國(guó)國(guó)會(huì)通過(guò)國(guó)家公園組織法法案,正式成立美國(guó)國(guó)家公園管理局,為內(nèi)政部下屬單位。黃石國(guó)家公園管理權(quán)于1918年由軍方轉(zhuǎn)交給該公園管理處。2003年7月31日,黃石要塞被命名為美國(guó)國(guó)家歷史地標(biāo),至今仍是該公園管理局的總部所在地。軍隊(duì)在管理期間建立的一整套行之有效的辦法,被國(guó)家公園管理局沿用,并在全國(guó)推廣使用。
1933年,富蘭克林總統(tǒng)上任,根據(jù)政府重組法案,將一些由國(guó)防部管轄的軍事遺址和由農(nóng)業(yè)部管轄的歷史文化遺址劃歸國(guó)家公園管理局管理。經(jīng)過(guò)多年調(diào)整,終于形成了一個(gè)由聯(lián)邦政府機(jī)構(gòu)統(tǒng)一管理風(fēng)景名勝和歷史文化遺址的局面。目前,美國(guó)聯(lián)邦政府撥給國(guó)家公園管理局的年度預(yù)算資金為30億美元左右,有員工約2.2萬(wàn)人,其中4000名至5000名為臨時(shí)工或季節(jié)性人員。
如今,美國(guó)共有397處正式認(rèn)定的機(jī)構(gòu)納入國(guó)家公園管理局管理范圍。需要說(shuō)明的是,國(guó)家公園管理局管理的并非只是風(fēng)景名勝。它總共使用20個(gè)類別名稱來(lái)命名受管理的國(guó)家級(jí)單位,包括國(guó)家公園、國(guó)家紀(jì)念碑、國(guó)家軍事公園、國(guó)家戰(zhàn)場(chǎng)遺址、國(guó)家歷史公園、國(guó)家歷史遺址、國(guó)際歷史遺址、國(guó)家游步道等。這些單位中著名的有黃石公園、死亡峽谷、佛羅里達(dá)州大沼澤等世界級(jí)自然風(fēng)景地,也有軍事要塞、紀(jì)念館堂和白宮。名稱中有“國(guó)家公園”字樣的只有58個(gè)。受管理的單位總占地面積大約為33.8萬(wàn)平方公里,最大的一處位于阿拉斯加州,面積5.3萬(wàn)平方公里,而最小的是一棟名人故居,占地80平方米。
從中國(guó)人的角度來(lái)看,美國(guó)國(guó)家公園管理局似乎集風(fēng)景園林、文物古跡、旅游等功能于一身。由該管理局管理的,包括6.8萬(wàn)多處歷史遺址、2.1萬(wàn)多座建筑物、6.8萬(wàn)多處考古遺址,以及負(fù)責(zé)監(jiān)管的博物館收藏的文物1.2億多件。現(xiàn)在,每年訪問(wèn)這些受管理單位的游客總數(shù)為2.8億人次。
如同美國(guó)其他文化單位一樣,美國(guó)國(guó)家公園管理局也實(shí)施頗有特色的各種青少年項(xiàng)目,每個(gè)單位都實(shí)施為年輕人提供工作的項(xiàng)目。實(shí)施項(xiàng)目主要通過(guò)青少年組織來(lái)安排,其中最早的一個(gè)是建立于1957年的學(xué)生保護(hù)協(xié)會(huì)。學(xué)生保護(hù)協(xié)會(huì)致力于保護(hù)文化、歷史遺址,目標(biāo)為培養(yǎng)這方面的未來(lái)領(lǐng)袖。志愿者可以擔(dān)當(dāng)實(shí)習(xí)生,承擔(dān)保護(hù)工作。他們通過(guò)這些實(shí)習(xí)機(jī)會(huì)來(lái)獲取經(jīng)驗(yàn),可能有助于以后的工作選擇或者學(xué)業(yè)上的進(jìn)一步深造。另一個(gè)大組織是建立于1985年的保護(hù)團(tuán)聯(lián)盟。聯(lián)盟共有136個(gè)團(tuán)體單位,分布在42個(gè)州和華盛頓的哥倫比亞特區(qū)。團(tuán)員年齡在16歲至25歲。國(guó)家公園管理局還與美國(guó)童子軍合作,專門(mén)為年齡為7歲至18歲的男性少年兒童和5歲至18歲的女性少年兒童的戶外訓(xùn)練提供場(chǎng)地和其他各種支持,通常包括露營(yíng)、森林知識(shí)、水上活動(dòng)、徒步旅行、野外旅行和運(yùn)動(dòng)。這些活動(dòng)有助于培養(yǎng)少年兒童的公民意識(shí)和保護(hù)環(huán)境、保護(hù)自然的意識(shí)。少年兒童則通過(guò)這些活動(dòng)幫助國(guó)家公園保護(hù)資源。
與一些國(guó)家相比,美國(guó)沒(méi)有那么悠久的古老文明,卻具有雄偉壯觀的自然風(fēng)景,其歷史和文化也自有波瀾壯闊的一面。壯美風(fēng)景和歷史文化遺址在美國(guó)人認(rèn)同美國(guó)、認(rèn)同自己是美國(guó)人方面起到了無(wú)可替代的重要作用。美國(guó)人喜歡旅游。而訪問(wèn)國(guó)家公園是美國(guó)人文化生活的重要部分。從這個(gè)角度來(lái)說(shuō),受美國(guó)國(guó)家公園管理局管理的各機(jī)構(gòu),仿佛是一個(gè)個(gè)愛(ài)國(guó)主義教育基地。
從上世紀(jì)80年代起,中國(guó)建立了國(guó)家、省級(jí)、縣級(jí)三級(jí)風(fēng)景名勝區(qū),對(duì)其進(jìn)行保護(hù)和管理,對(duì)發(fā)展旅游業(yè)和推動(dòng)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展,起到了積極作用。然而,這一體系尚不完善。讓風(fēng)景名勝區(qū)作為文化產(chǎn)業(yè)產(chǎn)生效益,美國(guó)國(guó)家公園管理局可以被視為一個(gè)值得研究、值得借鑒的案例。
(本文圖片由作者提供)
American National Parks
By David Guo
On March 1, 1872, the U.S. Congress established Yellowstone National Park and American President Ulysses S. Grant signed the park into law. Yellowstone means a great deal to the world: it was the world’s very first national park. National parks in the United States preserve natural beauty, history and cultural models. Through preservation and administration and youth programs, these national parks promote tourism, cultural undertakings, and local economy.
The law bans people from living inside the park. No one is allowed to possess, sell or buy the land of the park. At first, many people strongly opposed the act. Some wanted to make 8,900-km2 Yellowstone smaller so that they could mine, lumber and hunt. In the first years of the park, Yellowstone was managed by a civic group. Due to the lack of manpower and funding, the environment and wildlife were not effectively protected. Large-scale poaching and lumbering took place frequently. In 1886, the U.S. Army was commissioned to oversee the park. In 1916, the National Park Service came into being. In 1918, the army turned the control over to the National Park Service, which inherited many good principles and practices developed and used by the army to protect park animals and natural resources.
In 1933, the National Park Service was reorganized and expanded. The federal agency took over some military sites from the Department of Defense and cultural and historical sites from Department of Agriculture. Nowadays, the NPS is a national agency that manages national parks and cultural and historical sites. The NPS has an annual budget of 3 billion and a work force of 22,000, including 4,000 to 5,000 temporary or season employees.
At present, the U.S has about 397 officially recognized units under the management of the National Park Service. It is worth noting that the NPS has a system of 20 different titles for the park units it manages such as national park, national military park, national historical park, national historic site, national parkway, national preserve and national reserve, national scenic trail, national seashore, etc.
Compared to separate Chinese government departments that manage parks, historical and cultural sites and tourism attractions separately, the NPS is an all-in-one national agency. In addition to parks, the NPS also manages 27,000 historic sites, 21,000 buildings, 68,000 archaeological sites. The NPS also supervises 121 million objects in museum collections. The national park units receive 280 million visitors a year.
Like many other cultural units, the NPS conducts quite a few youth programs. Each unit offers work opportunities for youngsters. In partnership with Student Conservation Association, the NPS offer work opportunities for volunteers to work through internships, conservation jobs and crew experience. Volunteers conduct resource management, historic preservation, cultural resources and conservation programs to gain experience, which may lead to career development and education opportunities.
In partnership with the Corps Network established in 1985, the NPS provides a series of similar work opportunities for Corps Network members who are between the ages of 16 to 25. The network has members in 42 states and Washington D.C. The NPS works with Boy Scouts of America and Girl Scouts of America closely. Boys and girls can camp, learn about forest, take part in aquatic activities, hike, and sports. These activities enable youngsters to cultivate their citizen consciousness and develop a sense of environmental protection. Youngsters learn how to help preserve and protect natural resources.
Unlike some countries, the United States does not have a long history. However, the great country boasts the splendor and majesty of its natural vista and its history and culture are great. The national parks and sites of historical and cultural interests help Americans identify with the great nation, playing an irreplaceable part in uniting the Americans together. Americans love to travel and national parks are a key part of their cultural activities. In sense, national park units under the watch of the NPS are something like patriotism education bases as known in China.